I NI H «or MTANNKA •mi mm mum, mt m '• '';' •:!• mm. 1 Lri II AN1> IX) AVS '*'• '^?- m I BSa THE ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA ELEVENTH EDITION FIRST edition, published in three volumes, 1768—1771. SECOND ten 1777—1784. THIRD eighteen 1788—1797. FOURTH twenty 1801—1810. FIFTH twenty 1815—1817. SIXTH twenty 18*3—1824. SEVENTH twenty-one 1830—1847. EIGHTH twenty-two 1853—1860. NINTH twenty-five 1875—1889. TENTH ninth edition and eleven supplementary volumes, 1902 — 1903. ELEVENTH „ published in twenty-nine volumes, 1910 — 1911. COPYRIGHT in all countries subscribing to the Bern Convention by THE CHANCELLOR, MASTERS AND SCHOLARS of the UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE All rights reserved THE ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION ELEVENTH EDITION VOLUME II ANDROS to AUSTRIA IBM! «A . , . P* Cambridge, England: at the University Press New York, 35 West 32nd Street 1910 t . . . . . • • « • Copyright, in the United States of America, 1910, by The Encyclopaedia Britannica Company. INITIALS USED IN VOLUME II. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL CONTRIBUTORS,1 WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED. V A. B. ANDREW ALEXANDER BLAIR. Chief Chemist. U.S. Geological Survey and Tenth U.S. Census, 1879-1881. •{ Assaying. Member American Philosophical Society. Author of Chemical Analysis of Iron; &c. I A. B. R. ALFRED BARTON RENDLE, F.R.S., F.L.S., D.Sc. f AneiosDerms (in tartY A Dole Keeper of the Department of Botany, British Museum. \ A. C. R. C. ALBERT CHARLES ROBINSON CARTER. / »,* c^i.ti-. Editor of The Year's Art. \ * '"* A. C. Sp. ARTHUR COE SPENCER, PH.D. f Annalachian MounUin* Geologist to the Geological Survey of the United States. A. F. L. ARTHUR FRANCIS LEACH, M.A. [ Charity Commissioner since 1906. Fellow of All Souls' College, Oxford, 1874-1881. I Ascham Formerly Assistant Secretary, Board of Education. Author of English Schools at ] the Reformation; History of Winchester College; Bradfield College; &c. I A. F. P. ALBERT FREDERICK POLLARD, M.A., F.R.HiST.Soc. Professor of English History in University of London. Fellow of All Souls' College, \ Askew. Oxford. I A. G. MAJOR ARTHUR GEORGE FREDERICK GRIFFITHS (d. 1008). H.M. Inspector of Prisons, 1878-1896. Author of The Chronicles of Newgale;-] Anthropometry. Secrets of the Prison House; &c. A. H. S. REV ARCHIBALD HENRY SAYCE D.Lm., LL.D., D.D. f A,,,,,. Cii Assur-Bani-Pal. Sec the biographical article: SAYCE, A. H. I A. H.-S. SIR A. HOUTUM-SCHINDLER, C.I.E. f .^ ... General in the Persian Army. Author of Eastern Persian Irak. A. J. L. ANDREW JACKSON LAMOUREUX. f Argentina: Geography. Librarian, College of Agriculture, Cornell University. Editor of the Rio News 1 Asuncidn; (Rio de Janeiro), 1879-1901. I Atacama, Desert ol, A. L. ANDREW LANG. J* . See the biographical article : LANG, ANDREW. m' A. M. C. AGNES MARY CLERKE /Astronomy: History. See the biographical article: CLERKE, A. M. I A. S. M. ALEXANDER STCART MCRRAY, LL.D. f »ou*duct (i» t^rfi See the biographical article: MURRAY, ALEXANDER STUART. \ A. T. ANTOINE THOMAS, D.-is-L. f Professor in the University of Paris. Member of the Institute of France. Director I Aubusson: Town of Studies at the Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes. Author of Les Etats pro- | vinciaux de la France centrale sous Charles VII; &c. A. W. R. ALEXANDER WOOD RENTON, M.A., LL.B. f Apportionment- Puisne Judge of the Supreme Court of Ceylon. Editor of Encyclopaedia of the Ifl-ws J. iTu?,.-..-.. of England. [ M B. LORD BALCARRES, M.P., F.S.A. Eldest son of the »6th Earl of Crawford. Trustee of National Portrait Galler>f. ^ Art Galleries. Hon. Secretary, Society for Protection of Ancient Buildings. Author of Donatella ; &c. L B. R. SIR BOVERTON REDWOOD, D.Sc., F.R.S. (Edin.), Assoc.lNST.C.E., M.lNST.M.E. [ Adviser on Petroleum to the Admiralty, the Home Office and the Indian Office. •) Asphalt. President, Society Chemical Ind., 1907-1908. I C. AT. CRANNTNG ARNOLD. /Australia: Aborigines. University College, Oxford. Barrister-at-law. Author of The American Egypt. (. C. B.* CHARLES B£MONT, D.-£s-L., D.Lrrr. (Oxon.). J Annals; Anselme; See the biographical article: BEMONT, CHARLES. \ Arbois de Jubalnville; AulanL C. Ch. CHARLES CHREE, M.A., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S. f Atmospheric Electricity; Superintendent, Observatory Department, National Physical Laboratory. Formerly-, »uror, pnl»rR Fellow of King's College, Cambridge. President, Physical Society of London. (. m 'A complete list, showing all individual contributors, appears in the final volume. v 1971 vi INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES C. EL SIR CHARLES NORTON EDGECUMBE ELIOT, K.C.M.G., C.B., M.A., LL.D., D.C.L. r Vice-Chancellor of Sheffield University. Scholar of Balliol, Oxford, 1881-1885. Hertford, Boden, Ireland, Craven and Derby Scholar. Fellow of Trinity. Third] Secretary Embassy at St Petersburg, 1888-1892; Constantinople, 1893-1898. 1 Asia: History. Commissioner for British East Africa, 1900-1904. Author of Turkey in Europe; Letters from the Far East. C. F. A. CHARLES FRANCIS ATKINSON. f Arms anj Armour: Firearms- Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxfard. Captain, 1st City of London (Royal ~] .-„ Fusiliers). Author of The Wilderness and Cold Harbour. ( **al* Artillery. C. H. Rd. CHARLES HERCULES READ, LL.D. (St Andrews). Keeper of British and Medieval Antiquities and Ethnography, British Museum. J Archaeology President of the Society of Antiquaries of London. Past President of the Anthro- I pological Institute. Author of Antiquities from Benin; &c. C. Pf. CHRISTIAN PFISTER, D.-is-L. [ Antrustion- Professor at the Sorbonne, Paris. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author -{ . of Etudes sur le regne de Robert le Pieux. ( AUStrasia. C. PL REV. CHARLES PLUMMER, M.A. f Fellow of Corpus Christi^Colle|e, Oxford. Ford's Lecturer, 1901. Author of Life •{ Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. and Times of Alfred the Great; < C. W.* CHARLES WALDSTEIN, M.A., D.LITT., PH.D. f Sladc Professor of Fine Art, Cambridge. Fellow of King's College, Cambridge. I Aronc* Tl,, He,n Director of the Fitzwilliam Museum at Cambridge, 1883-1889. Director of the 1 American Archaeological School at Athens, 1889-1893. I C. W. W. SIR CHARLES WILLIAM WILSON, K.C.B., K.C.M.G., F.R.S. (1836-1897). f Major-General, Royal Engineers. Secretary to the North American Boundary Ararat; Commission, 1858-1862. British Commissioner on the Servian Boundary Com-J Armenia' mission. Director-General of the Ordnance Survey, 1886-1894. Director-] . . General of Military Education, 1895-1898. Author of From Korti to Khartum; Asia Minor. Life of Lord Clive; &c. D. C. B. DEMETRIUS CHARLES BOULGER. f Author of England and Russia in Central Asia; History of China; Life of Gordon;^ Antwerp. India in the igth Century; History of Belgium; &c. I D. F. T. DONALD FRANCIS TOVEY. f Balliol College, Oxford. Author of Essays in Musical Analysis, comprising The -j Aria. Classical Concerto, The Goldberg Variations, and analyses of many other classical works. [ D. G. H. DAVID GEORGE HOGARTH, M.A. r Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Antioch; Apamea; Arabgir; Fellow of the British Academy. Excavated at Paphos, 1888; Naukratis, 1899-! Asia Minor* Aspendus' and 1903; Ephesus, 1904-1905; Assiut, 1906-1907. Director, British School at . Athens, 1897-1900. Director, Cretan Exploration Fund, 1899. D. H. DAVID HANNAY. f Anson, Baron; Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona. Author of Short History of the Royal J. Antonio Prior of CratO' Navy, 2217-1688; Life of Emilio Castelar; &c. { ^^ Count of Arfflada E. Br. ERNEST BARKER, M.A. r Fellow and Lecturer of St John's College, Oxford. Formerly Fellow and Tutor of -j Aulic Council. Meiton College. E. B. T. EDWARD BURNETT TYLOR, F.R.S., D.C.L. (Oxon.). f Anthronoloirv See the biographical article : TYLOR, E. B. \ E. C.B. RIGHT REV. EDWARD CUTHBERT BUTLER, O.S.B., D.LITT. (Dubl.). r Anthony, Saint; Augustinian Abbot of Downside Abbey, Bath. -\ Canons; Augustinian I Hermits; Augustinians. Ed. M. EDUARD MEYER D.LITT (Oxon.). r Arbaces; Ardashir; Arsaces; Professor of Ancient History in the University of Berlin. Author of Geschichte des A-,.BC. Artahanne- Alterthums; Forschungen zur alien Geschichte; Geschichte des alien Aegyptens; DieJ. ArM Jsraeliten und ihre Nachbarstamme; &c. Artaphernes; Artaxerxes; I Astyages. E. G. EDMUND GOSSE, LL.D.. , . See the biographical article: GOSSE, E. W. J Asb]ornsen and Moe; E. 0.* EDMUND OWEN, M.B., F.R.C.S., LL.D., D.Sc. \ Assonance- Consulting Surgeon to St Mary's Hospital, London, and to the Children's Hospital, Aneurvsnv Great Ormond Street. Late Examiner in Surgery at the Universities of Cam- •< bridge, Durham and London. Author of A Manual of Anatomy for Senior Students. I Appendicitis. E. P. H.* ERNEST PRESCOT HILL, M.lNST.C.E. Member of the firm of G. A. Hill & Sons, Civil Engineers, London. | Aqueduct : Modern. E. R. L. SIR EDWIN RAY LANKESTER, K.C.B., F.R.S., D.Sc. (Oxon.) LL.D. Hon. Fellow of Exeter College, Oxford. President of the British Association, 1906. Professor of Zoology and Comparative Anatomy in University College, London, 1874-1890. Linacre Professor of Comparative Anatomy at Oxford, 1891-1898. Director of the Natural History Departments of the British Museum, 1898-1907. Vice-President of the Royal Society, 1896. Romanes Lecturer at Oxford, 1905. Author of Degeneration ; The Advancement of Science; The Kingdom of Man; &c. Arachnida; Arthropoda. E. Tn. REV. ETHELRED LEONARD TAUNTON (d. 1907). Author of The English Black Marks of St Benedict; History of the Jesuits i»-j Aquaviva, Claudio. England; &c. E. V. L. EDWARD VERRALL LUCAS. f Austen, Jane. Editor of Letters of Charles and Mary Lamb. Author of Life of Charles Lamb. \ INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES xii r. C. C. FREDERICK CORNWALLIS CONYBEARE, M.A. D.Th. (GicMen). [ AoolnUnc; Armenian Chnrek; Formerly Frllow of (Jnivcnii • fiar J. HI. R. JOHN HOLLAND ROSE, M.A., Lrrr.D. r Lecturer on Modern History to the Cambridge University Local Lectures! A „_„-.,„ Syndicate. Author of Life of Napoleon I; Napoleonic Studies; The Development of] AU&er( the European Nations; The Life of Pitt; Chapters in the Cambridge Modern History. [ J. I. JULES ISAAC. f . . of Prance Professor of History at the Lycde of Lyons. \ Ann J. L. W. Miss JESSIE L. WESTON. /Arthur (King); Author of Arthurian Romances. "^ Arthurian Legend. J. M. M. JOHN MALCOLM MITCHELL. f Aq"ed"Ct:, A™e? an*n Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Lecturer in Classics, East London J Medieval ; Aquinas, T College (University of London). Joint-editor of Grote's History of Greece. (tn Part>> Arcnon; Arms L and Armour: Ancient. J. Mac. JAMES MACQUEEN. ,- Member and Fellow of the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons. Professor of Surgery at the Royal Veterinary College, London. Examiner for the Fellowship J »_«,,.,_ Diploma of the R.C.V.S. Editor of Fleming's Operative Veterinary Surgery (2nd 1 edition); Dun's Veterinary Medicines (loth edition); and Neumann's Parasites and | Parasitic Diseases of the Domesticated Animals (2nd edition). L J. P. E. JEAN PAUL HIPPOLYTE EMMANUEL ADHEMAR ESMEIN. C Professor of Law in the University of Paris. Officer of the Legion of Honour. Member, of the Institute of France. Author of Cours elemenlaire d'histoire du droit frans ais ; &c. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES ix J. S. B. JACOH S \MII i. RALI.IN. / Anor«nUe««hln I'.iiui.li-i .ni'l lion. Sec. of the National Institution of Apprenticeship, London. |^ "' J. S. P. JOHN Surni FLETT, D.Sc., F.G.S. to the Geological Survey. Formerly !.«•< tun-r on IVtroloty in Edin- J IVtmxr.ipirr to te eoogca urvey. ormery .«•< tun-r on Vtrooty n n- hurah University. Neill M-dallist of th<- Royal Society of Edinburgh. Bigtby ) Medallist of the Geological Society of London. J. SI.* REV. JAMES SIBREE. / Antananari»o Author of Madagascar and its People; &c. L J. V. B. JAMES VF.RNON BARTLET, M.A.. D.D. (St Andrews). f Annul..- Professor of Church History. Mansfield College. Oxford. Author of The Apostolic \ £* ^ Plther> . I ./' . i\ i . J. W. G. JOHN WALTER GREGORY, F.R.S., D.Sc. Professor of Geology. University of Glasgow. Professor of Geology and J Australia: Physical Mineralogy, University of Melbourne, 1900-1904. Author of The Dead Heart oj 1 Geography. Australia; Australasia. J. W. He. JAMES WYCLIFFE HEAOLAM, M.A. Staff Inspector of Secondary Schools under the Board of Education. Formerly ] Fellow of King's College, Cambridge. Professor of Greek and Ancient History at Arnim, Count. Queen's College, London. Author of Bismarck and the Foundation of the German I Empire; &c. K. S. KATHLEEN SCHLESINGER. / Arghoul; Asor; Aulos. Author of The Instruments of the Orchestra. L. H.* LOOTS HALPHEN, D.-is-L. Lecturer on Medieval History at the University of Bordeaux. Formerly Secretary , Anjou. of the Ecole dcs Chartcs, Paris. f Anhydrite; Ankerite; L. J. S. LEONARD JAMES SPENCER, M.A., F.G.S. Annabergite; Anorthite; Department of Mineralogy, British Museum. Formerly Scholar of Sidney Sussex -J Apatite; Apophyllite; College, Cambridge, and Harkness Scholar. Editor of the Mineralogical Magazine. Aragonite; Argent ite: [ Argyrodite; Augite. L. M. Br. Louis MAURICE BRANDIN, M.A. / *nai..v.... _ , „, Fielden Professor of French and of Romance Philology in the University of London. \ An&lo- «• L. W. LUCIEN WOLF. Vice- President of the Jewish Historical Society of England. Formerly President of ~j Anti-Semitism. the Society. Joint editor of the BMiotheca Anglo-Judaica. I M. G. MOSES CASTER. Chief Rabbi of the Sephardic communities of England. Vice-President, Zionist Congress, 1898, 1899,; 1900. Ilchester Lecturer at Oxford on Slavonic and Byzantine Literature, 1886 and 1891. President, Folklore Society of England." Vice-President, Anglo-Jewish Association. Author of History of Rumanian Popular Literature; A New Hebrew Fragment of Ben-Sira; The Hebrew Version of Secretum Secrelorum of Aristotle. Anthim the Iberian. M. H. C. MONTAGUE HUGHES CRACKANTHORPE, K.C., D.C.L. f President of the Eugenics Education Society. Formerly Member of the General J Arhitntinn Council of the Bar and Council of Legal Education. Late Chairman, Incorporated 1 Council of Law Reporting. Honorary Fellow St John's College, Oxford. L M. J. De G. MICHAEL JAN DE GOEJE. / Arabia- Literature (in t>arf\ See the biographical article : GOEJE, MICHAEL JAN DE. I * M. Ja. MORRIS JASTROW, PH.D. (Leipzig). f Ann- Assur (G«f>- Professor of Semitic Languages, University of Pennsylvania. Author of Rtliiion-\ V '. of the Babylonians and Assyrians; &c. I AS"010gy. M. L. H. LADY HUGGINS. / ATOIIU- A</u, to give out or publish), a word originally meaning something not published. It has now two distinct significations. The primary one is something not published, in which sense it has been used to denote either secret histories — Procopius, e.g., gives this as one of the titles of his secret history of Justinian's court — or portions of ancient writers which have remained long in manuscript and are edited for the first time. Of such anecdota there are many collections; the earliest was probably L. A. Muratori's, in 1709. In the more general and popular acceptation of the word, however, anecdotes are short accounts of detached interesting particulars. Of such anecdotes the collections are almost infinite; the best in many respects is that compiled by T. Byerley (d. 1826) and J. Clinton Robertson (d. 1852), known as the Percy Anecdotes (1820-1823). ANEL, DOMINIQUE (1670-1730), French surgeon, was born at Toulouse about 1679. After studying at Montpellier and Paris, he served as surgeon-major in the French army in Alsace; then after two years at Vienna he went to Italy and served in the Austrian army. In 1710 he was teaching surgery in Rouen, whence he went to Genoa, and in 1716 he was practising in Paris. He died about 1 730. He was celebrated for his successful surgical treatment of fistula lacrymalis, and while at Genoa invented for use in connexion with the operation the fine-pointed syringe still known by his name. ANEMOMETER (from Gr. &PCJKK, wind, and nerpov, a measure), an instrument for measuring either the velocity or the pressure of the wind. Anemometers may be divided into two classes, (i) those that measure the velocity, (2) those that measure the pressure of the wind, but inasmuch as there is a close connexion between the pressure and the velocity, a suitable anemometer of either class will give information about both these quantities. Velocity anemometers may again be subdivided into two classes, (i) those which do not require a wind vane or weather- cock, (2) those which do. The Robinson anemometer, invented (1846) by Dr Thomas Romney Robinson, of Armagh Observatory, is the best-known and most generally used instrument, and belongs to the first of these. It consists of four hemispherical cups, mounted one on each end of a pair of horizontal arms, which lie at right angles to each other and form a cross. A vertical axis round which the cups turn passes through the centre of the cross; a train of wheel-work counts up the number of turns which this axis makes, and from the number of turns made in any given time the velocity of the wind during that time is calculated. The cups are placed symmetrically on the end of the arms, and it is easy to see that the wind always has the hollow of one cup presented to it; the back of the cup on the opposite end of the cross also faces the wind, but the pressure on it is naturally less, and hence a continual rotation is produced; each cup in turn as it comes round providing the necessary force. The two great merits of this anemometer are its simplicity and the absence of a wind vane ; on the other hand it is not well adapted to leaving a record on paper of the actual velocity at any definite instant, and hence it leaves a short but violent gust unrecorded. Unfortunately, when Dr Robinson first designed his anemometer, he stated that no matter what the size of the cups or the length of the arms, the cups always moved with one-third of the velocity of the wind. This result was apparently confirmed by some independent experi- ments, but it is very far from the truth, for it is now known that the actual ratio, or factor as it is commonly called, of the velocity of the wind to that of the cups depends very largely on the dimensions of the cups and arms, and may have almost any value between two and a little over three. The result has been that wind velocities published in many official publications have often been in error by nearly 50%. The other forms of velocity anemometer may be described as belonging to the windmill type. In the Robinson anemometer the axis of rotation is vertical, but with this subdivision the axis of rotation must be parallel to the direction of the wind and therefore horizontal. Furthermore, since the wind varies in direction and the axis has to follow its changes, a wind vane or some other contrivance to fulfil the same purpose must be em- ployed. This type of instrument is very little used in England, but seems to be more in favour in France. In cases where the direction of the air motion is always the same, as in the ventilating shafts of mines and buildings for instance, these anemometers, known, however, as air meters, are employed, and give most satisfactory results. Anemometers which measure the pressure may be divided into the plate and tube classes, but the former term must be taken as including a good many miscellaneous forms. The simplest type of this form consists of a flat plate, which is usually square or circular, while a wind vane keeps this exposed normally to the wind, and the pressure of the wind on its face is balanced by a spring. The distortion of the spring determines the actual force which the wind is exerting on the plate, and this is either read off on a suitable gauge, or leaves a record in the ordinary way by means of a pen writing on a sheet of paper moved by clockwork. Instruments of this kind have been in use for a long series of years, and have recorded pressures up to and even exceeding 60 Ib per sq. ft., but it is now fairly certain that these high values arc erroneous, and due, not to the wind, but to faulty design of the anemometer. The fact is that the wind is continually varying in force, and while the ordinary pressure plate is admirably adapted for measuring the force of a steady and uniform wind, it is entirely unsuitable for following the rapid fluctuations of the natural wind. To make matters worse, the pen which records the motion of the plate is often connected with it by an extensive system of chains and levers. A violent gust strikes the plate, which is driven back and carried by its own momentum far past the position in which a steady wind of the same force would place it ; by the time the motion has reached the pen it has been greatly exaggerated by the springiness of the connexion, and not only is the plate itself driven too far back, but also its position is wrongly recorded by the pen; the combined errors act the same way, and more than double the real maximum pressure may be indicated on the chart. A modification of the ordinary pressure-plate has recently been designed. In this arrangement a catch is provided so that the plate being once driven back by the wind cannot return until released by hand; but the catch does not prevent the plate being driven back farther by a gust stronger than the last one that moved it. Examples of these plates are erected on the west coast of England, where in the winter fierce gales often occur; a pres- sure of 30 Ib per sq. ft. has not been shown by them, and instances exceeding 20 Ib are extremely rare. • Many other modifications have been used and suggested. Probably a sphere would prove most useful for a pressure anemometer, since owing to its symmetrical shape it would not require a weathercock. A small light sphere hanging from the end of 30 or 40 ft. of fine sewing cotton has been employed to measure the wind velocity passing over a kite, the tension of the cotton being recorded, and this plan has given satisfactory results. Lind's anemometer, which consists simply of a (J tube contain- ing liquid with one end bent into a horizontal direction to face the wind, is perhaps the original form from which the tube class of instrument has sprung. If the wind blows into the mouth of a tube it causes an increase of pressure inside and also of course an equal increase in all closed vessels with which the mouth is in air- tight communication. If it blows horizontally over the open end of a vertical tube it causes a decrease of pressure, but this fact is not of any practical use in anemometry, because the magnitude of the decrease depends on the wind striking the tube exactly at right angles to its axis, the most trifling departure from the true direction causing great variations in the magnitude. The pressure tube anemometer (fig. i) utilizes the increased pressure in the open mouth of a straight tube facing the wind, and the decrease ANEMONE— ANERIO of pressure caused inside when the wind blow* over a ring of small holes drilled through the metal of a vertical tube which is closed at the upper end. The pressure differences on which the action depends are very small, and special means are required to register thrm, but in the ordinary form of recording anemometer (fig. 3), any wind capable of turning the vane which keeps the mouth of the tube facing the wind is capable of registration. The great advantage of the tube anemometer lies in the fact that the exposed part can be mounted on a high pole, and requires no oiling or attention for years; and the registering part can be placed in any convenient position, no matter how far from the external part. Two connecting tubes are required. It might appear at first sight as though one connexion would serve, but the differences in pressure on which these instruments depend are so minute, that the pressure of the air in the room where the record- ing part is placed has to be considered. Thus if the instrument depends on the pressure or suction effect alone, and this pressure or suction is measured against the air pressure in an ordinary room, in which the doors and windows are carefully dosed and a newspaper is then burnt up the chimney, an effect may be pro- duced equal to a wind of 10 m. an hour; and the opening of a Fie FIG. 3. window in rough weather, or the opening of a door, may entirely alter the registration. The connexion between the velocity and the pressure of the wind is one that is not yet known with absolute certainty. Many text-books on engineering give the relation P = -005 if when P is the pressure in Ib per sq. ft. and v the velocity in miles per hour. The history of this untrue relation is curious. It was given about the end of the i8th century as based on some experiments, but with a footnote stating that Little reliance could be placed on it. The statement without the qualifying note was copied from book to book, and at last received general acceptance. There is no doubt that under average conditions of atmospheric density, the .005 should be replaced by -003, for many independent authorities using different methods have found values very dose to this last figure. It is probable that the wind pressure is not strictly proportional to the extent of the surface exposed. Pressure plates are generally of moderate size, from a half or quarter of a sq. ft. up to two or three sq. ft., are round or square, and for these sizes, and shapes, and of course for a flat surface, the relation P = .003 11 is fairly correct. In the tube anemometer also it is really the pressure that is measured, although the scale is usually graduated as a velocity scale. In cases where the density of the air is not of average value, as on a high mountain, or with an exceptionally low barometer for example, an allowance must be made. Approximately i$% should be added to the velocity recorded by a tube anemometer for each 1000 ft. that it stands above sea-level. (W. H. Di.) ANEMONE, or \VixD-Fi.owT.t (from the Gr. AMJM, wind), a genus of the buttercup order (Kanunculaceme), containing •bout ninety species in the north and south temperate lones. Anemont ntmorosa, wood anemone, and A. PuttaiMa, Pasque-flower, occur in Britain ; the latter is found on chalk downs and Imnrton* pastures in some of the more southern and eastern counties. The plants are perennial herbs with an underground rootslock, and radical, more or less deeply cut, leaves. The elongated flower stem bears one or several, white, red, blue or rarely yellow, flowers; there is an involucre of three leaflets below each flower. The fruits often bear long hairy styles which aid their distribution by the wind. Many of the spedes are favourite garden plants; among the best known is Anemone coronaria, often called the poppy anemone, a tuberous-rooted plant, with parsley-like divided leaves, and large showy poppy-like blossoms on stalks of from 6 to 9 in. high; the flowers are of various colours, but the principal are scarlet, crimson, blue, purple and white. There are also double-flowered varieties, in which the stamens in the centre arc replaced by a tuft of narrow petals. It is an old garden favourite, and of the double forms there are named varieties. They grow best in a loamy soil, enriched with well-rotted manure, which should be dug in below the tubers. These may be planted in October, and for succession in January, the autumn-planted ones being protected by a covering of leaves or short stable litter. They will flower in May and June, and when the leaves have ripened should be taken up into a dry room till planting time. They are easily raised from the seed, and a bed of the single varieties is a valuable addition to a flower-garden, as it affords, in a warm situation, an abundance of handsome and often brilliant spring flowers, almost as early as the snowdrop or crocus. The genus contains many other lively spring-blooming plants, of which A. hortensis and A. fulgent have less divided leaves and splendid rosy-purple or scarlet flowers; they require similar treatment. Another set is represented by A. PtdsaliUa, the Pasque-flower, whose violet blossoms have the outer surface hairy; these prefer a calcareous soil. The splendid A. japonica, and its white variety called Honorine Joubert, the latter especially, are amongst the finest of autumn-blooming hardy perennials; they grow well in light soil, and reach 2} to 3 ft. in height, blooming continually for several weeks. A group of dwarf species, represented by the native British A. ntmorosa and A. apennina, are amongst the most beautiful of spring flowers for planting in woods and shady places. The genus llcpatica is now generally included in anemone as a subgenus. The plants are known in gardens as bepatiras, and are varieties of the common South European A. Hepattca; they are charming spring-flowering plants with usually blue flowers. ANENCLETUS, or ANACLETUS, second bishop of Rome. About the 4th century he is treated in the catalogues as two persons — Anacletus and Cletus. According to the catalogues he occupied the papal chair for twelve years (c. 77-88). ANERIO, the name of two brothers, musical composers, very great Roman masters of 16th-century polyphony. Felice, the elder, was born about 1560, studied under G. M. Nanino and succeeded Palestrina in 1504 as composer to the papal chapel Several masses and motets of his are printed in Proske's Uusua Divina and other modern anthologies, and it is hardly too much to say that they are for the most part worthy of Palestrina himself. The date of his death is conjecturally given as 1630. His brother, Giovanni Francesco, was born about 1567, and seems to have died about 1620. The occasional attribution of some of his numerous compositions to his elder brother is a pardonable mistake, if we may judge by the works that have been reprinted. But the statement, which continues to be repeated in standard works of reference, that " he was one of the first of Italians to use the quaver and its subdivisions " is incompre- hensible. Quavers were common property in all musical countries quite early in the i6th century, and semiquavers appear in a madrigal of Palestrina published in 1 574. The two brothers are probably the latest composers who handled 16th-century musk as their mother-language; suffering neither from the temptation ANET— ANGEL to indulge even in such mild neologisms as they might have learnt from the elder brother's master, Nanino, nor from the necessity of preserving their purity of style by a mortified negative asceticism. They wrote pure polyphony because they understood it and loved it, and hence their work lives, as neither the progressive work of their own day nor the reactionary work of their imitators could live. The i2-part Stabal Mater in the seventh volume of Palestrina's complete works has been by some authorities ascribed to Felice Anerio. ANET, a town of northern France, in the department of Eure-et-Loir, situated between the rivers Eure and Vegre, 10 m. N.E. of Dreux by rail. Pop. (1906) 1324. It possesses the remains of a magnificent castle, built in the middle of the i6th century by Henry II. for Diana of Poitiers. Near it is the plain of Ivry, where Henry IV. defeated the armies of the League in 1590. ANEURIN, or ANEIRIN, the name of an early 7th-century British (Welsh) bard, who has been taken by Thomas Stephens (1821-1875), the editor and translator of Aneurin's principal epic poem Gododin, for a son of Gildas, the historian. Gododin is an account of the British defeat (603) by the Saxons at Cattraeth (identified by Stephens with Dawstane hi Liddesdale), where Aneurin is said to have been taken prisoner; but the poem is very obscure and is differently interpreted. It was translated and edited by W. F. Skene hi his Four Ancient Books of Wales (1866), and Stephens' version was published by the Cymmro- dorion Society hi 1888. See CELT: Literature (Welsh). ANEURYSM, or ANEURISM (from Gr. avtvpiopa.. a dilata- tion), a cavity or sac which communicates with the ulterior of an artery and contains blood. The walls of the cavity are formed either of the dilated artery or of the tissues around that vessel. The dilatation of the artery is due to a local weakness, the result of disease or injury. The commonest cause is chronic inflamma- tion of the inner coats of the artery. The breaking of a bottle or glass hi the hand is apt to cut through the outermost coat of the artery at the wrist (radial) and thus to cause a local weakening of the tube which is gradually followed by dilatation. Also when an artery is wounded and the wound in the skin and superficial structures heals, the blood may escape into the tissues, displacing them, and by its pressure causing them to condense and form the sac- wall. The coats of an artery, when diseased, may be torn by a severe strain, the blood escaping into the condensed tissues which thus form the aneurysmal sac. The division of aneurysms into two classes, true and false, is unsatisfactory. On the face of it, an aneurysm which is false is not an aneurysm, any more than a false bank-note is legal tender. A better classification is into spontaneous and traumatic. The man who has chronic inflammation of a large artery, the result, for instance, of gout, arduous, straining work, or kidney- disease, and whose artery yields under cardiac pressure, has a spontaneous aneurysm; the barman or window-cleaner who has cut his radial artery, the soldier whose brachial or femoral artery has been bruised by a rifle bullet or grazed by a bayonet, and the boy whose naked foot is pierced by a sharp nail, are apt to be the subjects of traumatic aneurysm. In those aneurysms which are a saccular bulging on one side of the artery the blood may be induced to coagulate, or may of itself deposit layer upon layer of pale clot, until the sac is obliterated. This laminar coagulation by constant additions gradually fills the aneurysmal cavity and the pulsation hi the sac then ceases; contraction of the sac and its contents gradually takes place and the aneurysm is cured. But in those aneurysms which are fusiform dilatations of the vessel there is but slight chance of such cure, for the blood sweeps evenly through it without staying to deposit clot or laminated fibrine. In the treatment of aneurysm the aim is generally to lower the blood pressure by absolute rest and moderated diet, but a cure is rarely effected except by operation, which, fortunately, is now resorted to more promptly and securely than was previously the case. Without trying the speculative and dangerous method of treatment by compression, or the application of an indiarubber bandage, the surgeon now without loss of time cuts down upon the artery, and applies an aseptic ligature close above the dilatation. Experience has shown that this method possesses great advantages, and that it has none of the disadvantages which were formerly supposed to attend it. Saccular dilatations of arteries which are the result of cuts or other injuries are treated by tying the vessel above and below, and by dissecting out the aneurysm. Pop- liteal, carotid and other aneurysms, which are not of traumatic origin, are sometimes dealt with on this plan, which is the old " Method of Antyllus " with modern aseptic conditions. Speak- ing generally, if an aneurysm can be dealt with surgically the sooner that the artery is tied the better. Less heroic measures are too apt to prove painful, dangerous, ineffectual and dis- appointing. For anturysm in the chest or abdomen (which cannot be dealt with by operation) the treatment may be tried of injecting a pure solution of gelatine into the loose tissues of the armpit, so that the gelatine may find its way into the blood stream and increase the chance of curative coagulation in the distant aneurysmal sac. (E. O.*) ANFRACTUOSITY (from Lat. anfractuosus, winding), twisting and turning, circuitousness; a word usually employed in the plural to denote winding channels such as occur in the depths of the sea, mountains, or the fissures (sulci) separating the convolutions of the brain, or, by analogy, hi the mind. ANGARIA (from &yyapos, the Greek form of a Babylonian word adopted in Persian for " mounted courier "), a sort of postal system adopted by the Roman imperial government from the ancient Persians, among whom, according to Xenophon (Cyrop. viii. 6; cf. Herodotus viii. 98) it was established by Cyrus the Great. Couriers on horseback were posted at certain stages along the chief roads of the empire, for the transmission of royal despatches by night and day in all weathers. In the Roman system the supply of horses and their maintenance was a compulsory duty from which the emperor alone could grant exemption. The word, which in the 4th century was used for the heavy transport vehicles of the cursus publicus, and also for the animals by which they were drawn, came to mean generally "compulsory service." So angaria, angariare, hi medieval Latin, and the rare English derivatives " angariate," " angaria- tion," came to mean any service which was forcibly or unjustly demanded, and oppression in general. ANGARY (Lat. jus angariae; FT. droit d'angarie; Ger. Angarie; from the Gr. iyyapeia, the office of an &yyapos, courier or messenger), the name given to the right of a belligerent to seize and apply for the purposes of war (or to prevent the enemy from doing so) any kind of property on, belligerent territory, including that which may belong to subjects or citizens of a neutral state. Art. 53 of the Regulations respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land, annexed to the Hague Convention of 1899 on the same subject, provides that railway plant, land telegraphs, telephones, steamers and other ships (other than such as are governed by maritime law), though belonging to companies or private persons, may be used for military opera- tions, but " must be restored at the conclusion of peace and indemnities paid for them." And Art. 54 adds that " the plant of railways coming from neutral states, whether the property of those states or of companies or private persons, shall be sent back to them as soon as possible." These articles seem to sanction the right of angary against neutral property, while limiting it as against both belligerent and neutral property. It may be considered, however, that the right to use implies as wide a range of contingencies as the " necessity of war " can be made to cover. (T. BA.) ANGEL, a general term denoting a subordinate superhuman being in monotheistic religions, e.g. Islam, Judaism, Christianity, and in allied religions, such as Zoroastrianism. In polytheism the grades of superhuman beings are continuous; but in mono- theism there is a sharp distinction of kind, as well as degree, between God on the one hand, and all other superhuman beings on the other; the latter are the " angels." " Angel " is a transcription of the Gr. ayyt^os, messenger. ayyeXos in the New Testament, and the corresponding mal'akh in the Old Testament, sometimes mean " messenger," and ANGEL sometimes " angel," and this double sense is duly represented in the English Versions. " Angel " is also used in the Knglish Version for vs» 'Abbir, Ps. Uxviii. 75. (lit. " mighty "), for own 'Elokim, Ps. viii. 5, and for the obscure \*# thin' an, in IV Ixviii. 17. In the later development of the religion of Israel, 'Elohim is almost entirely reserved for the one true God; but in earlier times 'Elohim (gods), bnl 'Elokim, btil Elim (sons of gods, i.e. members of the class of divine beings) were general terms for superhuman beings. Hence they came to be used collectively of superhuman beings, distinct from Yahwch, and therefore inferior, and ultimately subordinate.1 So, too, the angels arc styled " holy ones,"1 and " watchers,"' and are spoken of as the " host of heaven " 4 or of " Yahweh." * The " hosts," n*9? SebaOth in the title Yakwek Sebaoth, Lord of Hosts, were probably at one time identified with the angels.4 The New Testament often speaks of "spirits," rvtb no.ro..1 In the earlier periods of the religion of Israel, the doctrine of monotheism had not been formally stated, so that the idea of " angel " in the modern sense docs not occur, but we find the Mal'akh Yakwek, Angel of the Lord, or Mai'akh Elokim, Angel of God. The Mal'akh Yakwek is an appearance or manifestation of Yakwek in the form of a man, and the term MaTakh Yahweh is used interchangeably with Yahweh (cf. Exod. iii. 2, with iii. 4; xiii. 21 with xiv. 19). Those who see the Mai'akh Yakwek say they have seen God." The Mai'akh Yahweh (or Elohim) appears to Abraham, Hagar, Moses, Gideon, &c., and leads the Israelites in the Pillar of Cloud.* The phrase Mai'akh Yakwek may have been originally a courtly circumlocution for the Divine King; but it readily became a means of avoiding crude anthropomorphism, and later on, when the angels were classified, the Mai'akh Yahweh came to mean an angel of distinguished rank.10 The identificaton of the Mai'akh Yahweh with the LO&OS, or Second Person of the Trinity, is not indicated by the references in the Old Testament ; but the idea of a Being partly identified with God, and yet in some sense distinct from Him, illustrates the tendency of religious thought to distinguish persons within the unity of the Godhead, and foreshadows the doctrine of the Trinity, at any rate in some slight degree. In the earlier literature the Mai'akh Yahweh or Elohim is almost the only mal'akh (" angel ") mentioned. There are, however, a few passages which speak of subordinate superhuman beings other than the Mai'akh Yahweh or Elohim. There are the cherubim who guard Eden. In Gen. rviii., xix. (J) the appearance of Yahweh to Abraham and Lot is connected with three, afterwards two, men or messengers; but possibly in the original form of the story Yahweh appeared alone." At Bethel, Jacob sees the angels of God on the ladder," and later on they appear to him at Mahanaim.13 In all these cases the angels, like the Mai'akh Yahweh, are connected with or represent a theo- phany. Similarly the " man " who wrestles with Jacob at Peniel is identified with God.14 In Isaiah vi. the seraphim, superhuman beings with six wings, appear as the attendants of Yahweh. Thus the pre-exilic literature, as we now have it, has little to say about angels or about superhuman beings other than Yahweh and manifestations of Yahweh; the pre-exilic prophets hardly mention angels.1* Nevertheless we may well suppose that the popular religion of ancient Israel had much to say of super- human beings other than Yahweh, but that the inspired writers have mostly suppressed references to them as unedifying. Moreover such beings were not strictly angels. 1 E.g. Gen. vi. 2; Job i. 6; Ps. viii. 5, xxix. I. * Zech. xiv. 5. I Dan. iv. 13. 4 Deut. xvii. 3 (?). • Josh. v. 14 (?). • The identification of the " hosts ' with the stars comes to the same thing; the stars were thought of as closely connected with angels. It is probable that the hosts " were also identified with the armies of Israel. ' Rev. i. 4. • Gen. xxxii. 30; Judges xiii. 22. • Exod. in. 2, xiv. 19. lo Zcch. i. n f. II Cf. xviii. i with xviii. 2, and note change of number in xix. 17 u Gen. xx viii. 12, E. " Gen. xxxii. i, E. "Gen. umber in xix. 17. i. xxxii. 24, 30, I. Mai'akh Yalvxh, *• " An angel " of i Kings xiii. 18 might be the Mai'akh as in xix. 5, cf. 7, or the passage, at any rate in its present form, may be exilic or post-exilic. The doctrine of monotheism was formally expressed in the period immediately before and during the Exile, in Deuteronomy1* and Isaiah"; and at the same time we find angel* prominent in Ezckicl who, as a prophet of the Exile, may have been influenced by the hierarchy of supernatural beings in the Babylonian religion, and perhaps even by the angelology of ZoroMtrianism.1* Ezekicl gives elaborate descriptions of cherubim1*; and in one of his visions he tees seven angels execute the judgment of God upon Jerusalem." As in Genesis they are styled " men," maTakh for " angel " does not occur in Ezekicl. Somewhat later, in the visions of Zechariah, angels play a great pan; they are some- times spoken of as " men," sometimes as mal'akh, and the Mai'akh Yahweh seems to hold a certain primacy among them." Satan also appears to prosecute (so to speak) the High Priest before the divine tribunal." Similarly in Job the bni Elokim. sons of God, appear as attendants of God, and amongst them Satan, still in his role of public prosecutor, the defendant being Job." Occasional references to " angels " occur in the Psalter*4 ; they appear as ministers of God. In Ps. Ixxviii. 49 the " evil angels " of A. V. conveys a false impression; it should be "angels of evil," as R.V., i.e. angels who inflict chastisement as ministers of God. The seven angels of Ezckicl may be compared with the seven eyes of Yahweh in Zech. iii. 9, iv. 10. The latter have been connected by Ewald and others with the later doctrine of seven chief angels**, parallel to and influenced by the Ameshaspentas ( Amesha Spenta) , or seven great spirits of the Persian mythology , but the connexion is doubtful. In the Priestly Code, c. 400 B.C., there is no reference to angels apart from the possible suggestion in the ambiguous plural in Genesis i. 26. During the Persian and Greek periods the doctrine of angels underwent a great development, partly, at any rate, under foreign influences. In Daniel, c. 160 B.C., angels, usually spoken of as " men " or " princes," appear as guardians or champions of the nations; grades are implied, there are " princes " and " chief " or " great princes " ; and the names of some angels are known, Gabriel, Michael; the latter is pre-eminent**, he is the guardian of Judah. Again in Tobit a leading part is played by Raphael, " one of the seven holy angels."*7 In Tobit, too, we find the idea of the demon or evil angel. In the canonical Old Testament angels may inflict suffering as ministers of God, and Satan may act as accuser or tempter; but they appear as subordinate to God, fulfilling His will; and not as morally evil. The statement** that God "chargeth His angels with folly " applies to all angels. In Daniel the princes or guardian angels of the heathen nations oppose Michael the guardian angel of Judah. But in Tobit we find Asmodacus the evil demon, TO icovripbv oainoviov, who strangles Sarah's husbands, and also a general reference to " a devil or evil spirit," TvtDAio.** The Fall of the Angels is not properly a scriptural doctrine, though it is based on Gen. vi. 2, as inter- preted by the Book of Enoch. It is true that the bni Elohim of that chapter arc subordinate superhuman beings (cf. above), but they belong to a different order of thought from the angels of Judaism and of Christian doctrine; and the passage in no way suggests that the bne Elohim suffered any loss of status through their act. The guardian angels of the nations in Daniel probably represent the gods of the heathen, and we have there the first step of the process by which these gods became evil angels, an idea expanded by Milton in Paradise Lost. The development of ihe doctrine of an organized hierarchy of angels belongs to the Jewish litera- ture of the period 200 B.C. to A.D. 100. In Jewish apocalypses especially, the imagination ran riot on the rank, classes and names of angels; and such works as the various books of Enoch and 14 Deut. vi. 4, 5. " Isaiah xliii. 10 Ac. n It is not however certain that these doctrines of Zoroast nanism were developed at so early a date. » E«k. i. x. » Ezek. ix. « Zech. i. 1 1 f. » Zech. iii. i. *• Job i., ii. Cf. i Chron. xri. l. *4 Pss. xci. n. ciii. 20 Ac. ' Tobit xii. 15; Rev. viii. 2. » Dan. viii. 16, x. 13. 2O.2I. » Tob. xii. 15. » Job iv. 18. " Tobit iii. 8. 17. vi. 7. ANGEL— ANGELICO the Ascension of Isaiah supply much information on this subject. In the New Testament angels appear frequently as the ministers of God and the agents of revelation1; and Our Lord speaks of angels as fulfilling such functions2, implying in one saying that they neither marry nor are given in marriage.* Naturally angels are most prominent in the Apocalypse. The New Testa- ment takes little interest in the idea of the angelic hierarchy, but there are traces of the doctrine. The distinction of good and bad angels is recognized; we have names, Gabriel4, and the evil angels Abaddon or Apollyon6, Beelzebub6, and Satan'; ranks are implied, archangels', principalities and powers9, thrones and dominions10. Angels occur in groups of four or seven11. In Rev. i.-iii. we meet with the "Angels " of the Seven Churches of Asia Minor. These are probably guardian angels, standing to the churches in the same relation that the " princes " in Daniel stand to the nations; practically the " angels " are personifications of the churches. A less likely view is that the " angels " are the human representatives of the churches, the bishops or chief presbyters. There seems, however, no parallel to such a use of " angel," and it is doubtful whether the mon- archical government of churches was fully developed when the Apocalypse was written. Later Jewish and Christian speculation followed on the lines of the angelology of the earlier apocalypses; and angels play an important part in Gnostic systems and in the Jewish Mid- rashim and the Kabbala. Religious thought about the angels during the middle ages was much influenced by the theory of the angelic hierarchy set forth in the De Hierarchic Celesti, written in the 5th century in the name of Dionysius the Areopagite and passing for his. The creeds and confessions do not formulate any authoritative doctrine of angels; and modern rationalism has tended to deny the existence of such beings, or to regard the subject as one on which we can have no certain knowledge. The principle of continuity, however, seems to require the existence of beings intermediate between man and God. The Old Testament says nothing about the origin of angels; but the Book of Jubilees and the Slavonic Enoch describe their creation; and, according to Col. i. 16, the angels were created in, unto and through Christ. Nor does the Bible give any formal account of the nature of angels. It' is doubtful how far Ezekiel's account of the cherubim and Isaiah's account of the seraphim are to be taken as descriptions of actual beings; they are probably figurative, or else subjective visions. Angels are constantly spoken of as " men," and, including even the Angel of Yahweh, are spoken of as discharging the various functions of human life; they eat and drink", walku and speak14. Putting aside the cherubim and seraphim, they are not spoken of as having wings. On the other hand they appear and vanish15, exercise miraculous powers16, and fly17. Seeing that the anthropomorphic language used of the angels is similar to that used of God, the Scriptures would hardly seem to require a literal interpretation in either case. A special association is found, both in the Bible and elsewhere, between the angels and the heavenly bodies18, and the elements or elemental forces, fire, water, &c19. The angels are infinitely numerous10. The function of the angels is that of the supernatural servants of God, His agents and representatives; the Angel of Yahweh, as we have seen, is a manifestation of God. In old times, the bne Elohim and the seraphim are His court, and the angels are alike the court and the army of God; the cherubim are his throne-bearers. In his dealings with men, the angels, as their 1 E.g. Matt. i. 20 (to Joseph), iv. n (to Jesus), Luke i. 26 (to Mary), Acts xii. 7 (to Peter). I E.g. Mark viii. 38, xiii. 27. l Mark xii. 25. 4 Luke i. 19. • Rev. ix. II. • Mark iii. 22. ' Mark i. 13. 8 Michael, Jude 9. • Rom. viii. 38 ; Col. ii. 10. » Col. i. 1 6. " Rev. vii. I. " Gen. xviii. 8. II Gen. xix. 16. " Zech. iv. I. " Judgss vi. 12, 21. " Rev. vii. I. viii. " Rev. viii. 13, xiv. 6. M Job xxxviii. 7; Asc. of Isaiah, iv. 18; Slav. Enoch, iv. I. M Rev. xiv. 18, xvi. 5; r»ossibly Gal. iv. 3; Col. ii. 8, 20. 10 Ps. Ixviii. 17; Dan. vii. 10. name implies, are specially His messengers, declaring His will and executing His commissions. Through them he controls nature and man. They are the guardian angels of the nations; and we also find the idea that individuals have guardian angels21. Later Jewish tradition held that the Law was given by angels22. According to the Gnostic Basilides, the world was created by angels. Mahommedanism has taken over and further elaborated the Jewish and Christian ideas as to angels. While the scriptural statements imply a belief in the existence of spiritual beings intermediate between God and men, it is probable that many of the details may be regarded merely as symbolic imagery. In Scripture the function of the angel overshadows his personality; the stress is on their ministry; they appear in order to perform specific acts. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — See the sections on " Angels " in the handbooks of O. T. Theology by Ewald, Schultz, Smend, Kayser-Marti, &c. ; and of N. T. Theology by Weiss, and in van Oosterzee's Dogmatics. Also commentaries on special passages, especially Driver and Bevan on Daniel, and G. A. Smith, Minor Prophets, ii. 310 ff. ; and articles s.v. " Angel " in Hastings' Bible Dictionary, and the Encyclopaedia Biblica. (W. H. BE.) ANGEL, a gold coin, first used in France (angelot, ange) in 1340, and introduced into England by Edward IV. in 1465 as a new issue of the " noble," and so at first called the " angel-noble." It varied in value between that period and the time of Charles I. (when it was last coined) from 6s. 8d. to los. The name was derived from the representation it bore of St Michael and the dragon. The angel was the coin given to those who came to be touched for the disease known as king's evil; after it was no longer coined, medals, called touch-pieces, with the same device, were given instead. ANGELICA, a genus of plants of the natural order Umbelliferae, represented in Britain by one species, A . syhestris, a tall perennial herb with large bipinnate leaves and large compound umbels of white or purple flowers. The name Angelica is popularly given to a plant of an allied genus, Archangelica officinalis, the tender shoots of which are used in making certain kinds of aromatic sweetmeats. A ngelica balsam is obtained by extracting the roots with alcohol, evaporating and extracting the residue with ether. It is of a dark brown colour and contains angelica oil, angelica wax and angelicin, CigHaoO. The essential oil of the roots of Angelica archangelica contains /3-terebangelene, CioHu, and other terpenes; the oil of the seeds also contains /3-terebangelene, together with methylethylacetic acid and hydroxymyristic acid. The angelica tree is a member of the order Avaliaceae, a species of Aralia (A. spinosa), a native of North America; it grows 8 to 12 ft. high, has a simple prickle-bearing stem forming an umbrella-like head, and much divided leaves. ANGELICO, FRA (1387-1455), Italian painter. II Beato Fra Giovanni Angelico da Fiesole is the name given to a far-famed painter-friar of the Florentine state in the isth century, the representative, beyond all other men, of pietistic painting. He is often, but not accurately, termed simply " Fiesole," which is merely the name of the town where he first took the vows; more often Fra Angelico. If we turn his compound designation into English, it runs thus—" the Beatified Friar John the Angelic of Fiesole." In his lifetime he was known no doubt simply as Fra Giovanni or Friar John; " The Angelic " is a laudatory term which was assigned to him at an early date, — we find it in use within thirty years after his death; and, at some period which is not defined in our authorities, he was beatified by due ecclesiastical process. His baptismal name was Guido, Giovanni being only his name in religion. He was born at Vicchio, in the Tuscan province of Mugello, of unknown but seemingly well-to-do parentage, in 1387 (not 1390 as sometimes stated); in 1407 he became a novice in the convent of S. Domenico at Fiesole, and in 1408 he took the vows and entered the Dominican order. Whether he had previously been a painter by profession is not certain, but may be pronounced probable. The painter named Lorenzo Monaco may have contributed to his art-training, and the influence of the Sienese school is discernible in his work. 81 Matt, xviii. 10; Acts xii. 15. B Gal. iii. 19 ; Heb. ii. 2 ; LXX. of Deut. xxxiii. 2. ANGELICO According to Vasari, the first paintings of this artist were in the Ortosa of Florence; none such exist there now. His earliest extant performances, in considerable number, are at Cortona, whither he was sent during his novitiate, and here apparently he spent all the opening years of his monastic life. His first works executed in fresco were probably those, now destroyed, which he painted in the convent of S. Domenico in this city; as a fresco- painter, he may have worked under, or as a follower of, Gherardo Stamina. From 1418 to 1436 he was back at Ficsole; in 1436 he was transferred to the Dominican convent of S. Marco in Florence, and in 1438 undertook to paint the altarpiece for the choir, followed by many other works; he may have studied about this time the renowned frescoes in the Brancacci chapel in the Florentine church of the Carmine and also the paintings of Orcagna. In or about 1445 he was invited by the pope to Rome. The pope who reigned from 1431 to 1447 was Eugenius IV., and he it was who in 1445 appointed another Dominican friar, a colleague of Angclico. to be archbishop of Florence. If the story (first told by Vasari) is true — that this appointment was made at the suggestion of Angelico only after the archbishopric had been offered to himself, and by him declined on the ground of his inaptitude for so elevated and responsible a station — Eugenius, and not (as stated by Vasari) his successor Nicholas V., must have been the pope who sent the invitation and made the offer to Fra Giovanni, for Nicholas only succeeded in 1447. The whole statement lacks authentication, though in itself credible enough. Certain it is that Angelico was staying in Rome in the first half of 1447; and he painted in the Vatican the Cappella del Sacra- mento, which was afterwards demolished by Paul HI. In June 1447 he proceeded to Orvieto, to paint in the Cappella Nuova of the cathedral, with the co-operation of his pupil Benozzo Gozzoli. He afterwards returned to Rome to paint the chapel of Nicholas V. In this capital he died in 1455, and he lies buried in the church of the Minerva. According to all the accounts which have reached us, few men on whom the distinction of beatification has been conferred could have deserved it more nobly than Fra Giovanni. He led a holy and self-denying life, shunning all advancement, and was a brother to the poor; no man ever saw him angered. He painted with unceasing diligence, treating none but sacred subjects; he never retouched or altered his work, probably with a religious feeling that such as divine providence allowed the thing to come, such it should remain He was wont to say that he who illustrates the acts of Christ should be with Christ. It is averred that he never handled a brush without fervent prayer and he wept when he painted a Crucifixion. The Last Judgment and the Annunciation were two of the subjects he most frequently treated. Bearing in mind the details already given as to the dates of Fra Giovanni's sojournings in various localities, the reader will be able to trace approximately the sequence of the works which we now proceed to name as among his most important productions. In Florence, in the convent of S. Marco (now converted into a national museum), a series of frescoes, beginning towards 1443; in the first cloister is the Crucifixion with St Dominic kneeling; and the same treatment recurs on a wall near the dormitory; in the chapterhouse is a third Crucifixion, with the Virgin swooning, a composition of twenty life-sized figures — the red background, which has a strange and harsh effect, is the misdoing of some restorer; an " Annunciation," the figures of about three-fourths of life-size, in a dormitory; in the adjoining passage, the " Virgin enthroned," with four saints; on the wall of a cell, the " Corona- tion of the Virgin," with Saints Paul, Thomas Aquinas, Benedict, Dominic, Francis and Peter Martyr; two Dominicans welcom- ing Jesus, habited as a pilgrim; an " Adoration of the Magi "; the " Marys at the Sepulchre." All these works are later than the altarpiece which Angclico painted (as before mentioned) for the choir connected with this convent, and which is now in the academy of Florence; it represents the Virgin with Saints Cosmas and Damian (the patrons of the Medici family), Dominic, Peter, Francis, Mark, John Evangelist and Stephen; the pediment illustrated the lives of Cosmas and Damian, but it has long been •evered from the main subject. I n the Uffizi gallery, an altarpiecr the Virgin (life-sued) enthroned, with the Infant and twelve angels. In S. Domenico, Fie*ole, * few frescoe*. ICM fine than those in S. Marco; alto an altarpiece in tempera of the Virgin and Child between Saints Peter, Thomas Aquinas, Dominic and Peter Martyr, now much destroyed. The subject which originally formed the predella of this picture has, since 1860, been in the National Gallery, London, and worthily represents there the hand of the saintly painter. The subject is a Glory, Christ with the banner of the Resurrection, and a multitude of saints, including, at the extremities, the saints or bcati of the Dominican order; here are no fewer than 366 figures or portions of figures, many of them having names inscribed. This predella was highly lauded by Vasari; still more highly another picture which used to form an altarpiece in Ficsole, and which now obtains world-wide celebrity in the Louvre — the " Coronation of the Virgin," with eight predella subjects of the miracles of St. Dominic. For the church of Santa Trinita, Florence, Angelico executed a " Depo- sition from the Cross," and for the church of the Angeli, a " Last Judgment," both now in the Florentine academy; for S. Maria Novella, a " Coronation of the Virgin," with a predella in three sections, now in the Uffizi, — this again is one of his masterpieces. In Orvieto cathedral he painted three triangular divisions of the ceiling, portraying respectively Christ in a glory of angels, sixteen saints and prophets, and the virgin and apostles: all these are now much repainted and damaged. In Rome, in the Chapel of Nicholas V., the acts of Saints Stephen and Lawrence; also various figures of saints, and on the ceiling the four evangelists. These works of the painter's advanced age, which have suffered somewhat from restorations, show vigour superior to that of his youth, along with a more adequate treatment of the architectural perspectives. Naturally, there are a number of works currently attributed to Angelico, but not really his; for instance, a " St Thomas with the Madonna's girdle," in the Lateran museum, and a " Virgin enthroned," in the church of S. Girolamo, Fiesole. It has often been said that he commenced and frequently practised as an illuminator; this is dubious and a presumption arises that illuminations executed by Giovanni's brother, Benedetto, also a Dominican, who died in 1448, have been ascribed to the more famous artist. Benedetto may perhaps have assisted Giovanni in the frescoes at S. Marco, but nothing of the kind is distinctly traceable. A folio series of engravings from these paintings was published in Florence, in 1852. Along with Gozzoli already mentioned, Zanobi Strozzi and Gentile da Fabriano are named as pupils of the Beato. We have spoken of Angelico's ait as " pictistic "; this is in fact its predominant character. His visages have an air of rapt suavity, devotional fervency and beaming esoteric consciousness, which is intensely attractive to some minds and realizes beyond rivalry a particular ideal — that of ecclesiastical saintliness and detachment from secular fret and turmoil. It should not be denied that he did not always escape the pitfalls of such a method of treatment, the faces becoming sleek and prim, with a smirk of sexless religiosity which hardly eludes the artificial or even the hypocritical; on other minds, therefore, and these some of the most masculine and resolute, he produces little genuine impres- sion. After allowing for this, Angelico should nevertheless be accepted beyond cavil as an exalted typical painter according to his own range of conceptions, consonant with his monastic railing, unsullied purity of life and exceeding devoutness. Exquisite as he is in his special mode of execution, he undoubtedly falls far short, not only of his great naturalist contemporaries such as Masaccio and Lippo Lippi, but even of so distant a precursor as Giotto, in all that pertains to bold or life-like invention of a subject or the realization of ordinary appearances, expressions and actions — the facts of nature, as distinguished from the aspirations or contemplations of the spirit. Technically speaking, he had much finish and harmony of composition and colour, without corresponding mastery of light and shade, and his knowledge of the human frame was restricted. The brilliancy and fair light scale of his tints is constantly remarkable, combined with a free use of gilding; this conduces materially to that celestial character 8 ANGELL— ANGERS which so pre-eminently distinguishes his pictured visions of the divine persons, the hierarchy of heaven and the glory of the redeemed. Books regarding Fra Angelico are numerous. We may mention those by S. Beissel, 1895; V. M. Crawford, 1900; R. L. Douglas, 1900; I. B. Supino, 1901; D. Tumiati, 1897; G. Williamson, 1901. (W. M. K.) ANGELL, GEORGE THORNDIKE (1823-1909), American philanthropist, was born at Southbridge, Massachusetts, on the 5th of June 1823. He graduated at Dartmouth in 1846, studied law at the Harvard Law School, and in 1851 was admitted to the bar in Boston, where he practised for many years. In 1868 he founded and became president of the Massachusetts Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, in the same year establishing and becoming editor of Our Dumb Animals, a journal for the promotion of organized effort in securing the humane treatment of animals. For many years he was active in the organization of humane societies in England and America. In 1882 he initiated the movement for the establishment of Bands of Mercy (for the promotion of humane treatment of animals), of which in 1008 there were more than 72,000 in active existence. In 1889 he founded and became president of the American Humane Education Society. He became well known as a criminologist and also as an advocate of laws for the safe- guarding of the public health and against adulteration of food. He died at Boston on the i6th of March 1909. ANGEL-LIGHTS, in architecture, the outer upper lights in a perpendicular window, next to the springing; probably a corruption of the word angle-lights, as they are nearly triangular. ANGELUS, a Roman Catholic devotion in memory of the Annunciation. It has its name from the opening words, Angelas Domini nuntiamt Mariae. It consists of three texts describing the mystery, recited as versicle and response alternately with the salutation " Hail, Mary!" This devotion is recited in the Catholic Church three times daily, about 6 A.M., noon and 6 P.M. At these hours a bell known as the Angelus bell is rung. This is still rung in some English country churches, and has often been mistaken for and alleged to be a survival of the curfew-bell. The institution of the Angelus is by some ascribed to Pope Urban II., by some to John XXII. The triple recitation is ascribed to Louis XI. of France, who in 1472 ordered it to be thrice said daily. ANGELUS SILESIUS (1624-1677), German religious poet, was born in 1624 at Breslau. His family name was Johann Scheffler, but he is generally known by the pseudonym Angelus Silesius, under which he published his poems and which marks the country of his birth. Brought up a Lutheran, and at first physician to the duke of Wurttemberg-Oels, he joined in 1652 the Roman Catholic Church, in 1661 took orders as a priest, and became coadjutor to the prince bishop of Breslau. He died at Breslau on the 9th of July 1677. In 1657 Silesius published under the title Heilige Seelenlust, oder geisttiche Hirtenlieder der JrttAren/wumtwtetoenPjycAe (1657), a collection of 205 hymns, the most beautiful of which, such as, Liebe, die du mich zum Bilde deiner Gottheit hast gemacht and Mir nach, spricht Christus unser Held, have been adopted in the German Protestant hymnal More remarkable, however, is his Geistreiche Sinn-und SMuss reime (1657), afterwards called Ckerubinischer Wandersmam (1674). This is a collection of " Reimspriiche " or rhymec distichs embodying a strange mystical pantheism drawn mainly from the writings of Jakob Bohme and his followers. Silesius delighted specially in the subtle paradoxes of mysticism. Thr essence of God, for instance, he held to be love; God, he said can love nothing inferior to himself; but he cannot be an objec of love to himself without going out, so to speak, of himself without manifesting his infinity in a finite form; in other words by becoming man. God and man are therefore essentially one A complete edition of Scheffler's works (Sdmtliche poetische Werke was published by D. A. Rosenthal, 2 vols. (Regensburg, 1862) Both the Cherubtnischer Wandersmann and Heilige Seelenlust hav been republished by G. Ellinger (1895 and 1901); a selection from the former work by O. E. Hartleben (1896). For further notice f Silesius' life and work, see Hoffmann von Fallersleben in Wei- mar'sches Jahrbuch I. (Hanover, 1854) ; A. Kahlert, Angelus Silesius 1853); C. Seltmann, Angelus Silesius und seine Mystik (1896), and biog. by H. Mahn (Dresden, 1896). ANGERMUNDE, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province I Brandenburg, on Lake Miinde, 43 m. from Berlin by the Berlin- Stettin railway, and at the junction of lines to Prenzlau, Freien- walde and Schwedt. Pop. (1900) 7465. It has three Protestant :hurches, a grammar school and court of law. Its industries :mbrace iron founding and enamel working. In 1420 the elector •"rederick I. of Brandenburg gained here a signal victory over the 'omeranians. ANGERONA, or ANGERONIA, an old Roman goddess, whose name and functions are variously explained. According to ancient authorities, she was a goddess who relieved men from >ain and sorrow, or delivered the Romans and their flocks from mgina (quinsy) ; or she was the protecting goddess of Rome and the keeper of the sacred name of the city, which might not >e pronounced lest it should be revealed to her enemies; it was even thought that Angerona itself was this name. Modern scholars regard her as a goddess akin to Ops, Acca Larentia and 3ea Dia; or as the goddess of the new year and the returning sun (according to Mommsen, ab angerendo = 6.ir6 TOV &.vatp«rOai r6i> %\u>v). Her festival, called Divalia or Angeronalia, was celebrated on the 2ist of December. The priests offered sacrifice in the temple of Volupia, the goddess of pleasure, in which stood a statue of Angerona, with a finger on her mouth, which was bound and closed (Macrobius i. 10; Pliny, Nat. Hist. lii. 9; Varro, L. L. vi. 23). She was worshipped as Ancharia at Faesulae, where an altar belonging to her has been recently discovered. (See FAESULAE.) ANGERS, a city of western France, capital of the department of Maine-et-Loire, 191 m. S.W. of Paris by the Western railway to Nantes. Pop. (1906) 73,585. It occupies rising ground on 30th banks of the Maine, which are united by three bridges. The surrounding district is famous for its flourishing nurseries and market gardens. Pierced with wide, straight streets, well provided with public gardens, and surrounded by ample, tree- lined boulevards, beyond which lie new suburbs, Angers is one of the pleasantest towns in France. Of its numerous medieval buildings the most important is the cathedral of St Maurice, dating in the main from the I2th and I3th centuries. Between the two flanking towers of the west facade, the spires of which are of the i6th century, rises a central tower of the same period. The most prominent feature of the facade is the series of eight warriors carved on the base of this tower. The vaulting of the nave takes the form of a series of cupolas, and that of the choir and transept is similar. The chief treasures of the church are its rich stained glass (izth, i3th and 1 5 th centuries) and valuable tapestry (uth to i8th centuries). The bishop's palace which adjoins the cathedral contains a fine synodal hall of the i2th century. Of the other churches of Angers, the principal are St Serge, an abbey-church of the I2th and isth centuries, and La Trinite ( 1 2 th century) . The prefecture occupies the buildings of the famous abbey of St Aubin ; in its courtyard are elaborately sculptured arcades of the nth and i2th centuries, from which period dates the tower, the only survival of the splendid abbey- church. Ruins of the old churches of Toussaint (i3th century) and Notre-Dame du Ronceray (nth century) are also to be seen. The castle of Angers, an imposing building girt with towers and a moat, dates from the I3th century and is now used as an armoury. The ancient hospital of St Jean (i2th century) is occupied by an archaeological museum; and the Logis Barrault, a mansion built about 1500, contains the public library, the municipal museum, which has a large collection of pictures and sculptures, and the Mus6e David, containing works by the famous sculptor David d' Angers, who was a native of the town. One of his masterpieces, a bronze statue of Rene of Anjou, stands close by the castle. The H6tel de Pincfi or d'Anjou (1523-153°) is the finest of the stone mansions of Angers; there are also many curious wooden houses of the isth and i6th centuries. The palais de justice, the Catholic institute, a fine theatre, and ANGERSTEIN— ANGIOSPERMS » hospital with 1500 beds are the more remarkable of the modern buildings of the town. Angers is the seat of a bishopric, dating from the 3rd century, a prefecture, a court of appeal and a court of assizes. It has a tribunal of first instance, a tribunal of com- merce, a board of trade-arbitrators, a chamber of commerce, a branch of the Bank of France and several learned societies. Its educational institutions include ecclesiastical seminaries, ft lycee, a preparatory school of medidne and pharmacy, a uni- versity with free faculties (Jacidtts libra) of theology, law, letters and science, a higher school of agriculture, training colleges, a school of arts and handicrafts and a school of fine art. The prosperity of the town is largely due to the great slate-quarries of the vicinity, but the distillation of liqueurs from fruit, cable, rope and thread-making, and the manufacture of boots and shoes, umbrellas and parasols are leading industries. The weaving of sail-cloth and wooHen and other fabrics, machine construction, wire-drawing, and manufacture of sparkling wines and preserved fruits are also carried on. The chief articles of commerce, besides slate and manufactured goods, are hemp, early vegetables, fruit, flowers and live-stock. Angers, capital of the Gallic tribe of the Andecavi, was under the Romans called Juliomagus. During the gth century it became the seat of the counts of An jou (q.v.) . It suffered severely from the invasions of the Northmen in 845 and the succeeding years, and of the English in the nth and isth centuries; the Huguenots took it in 1585, and the Vendean royalists were repulsed near it in 1793. Till the Revolution, Angers was the seat of a celebrated university founded in the I4th century. See L. M. Thorode, Notice de la mile d' Angers (Angers, 1897). ANGERSTEIN, JOHN JULIUS (1735-1822), London merchant, and patron of the fine arts, was born at St Petersburg and settled in London about 1749. His collection of paintings, consisting of about forty of the most exquisite specimens of the art, purchased by the British government, on his death, formed the nucleus of the National Gallery. ANGILBERT (d. 814), Prankish Latin poet, and minister of Charlemagne, was of noble Prankish parentage, and educated at the palace school under Alcuin. As the friend and adviser of the emperor's son, Pippin, he assisted for a while in the govern- ment of Italy, and was later sent on three important embassies to the pope, in 792, 794 and 796. Although he was the father of two children by Charlemagne's daughter, Bertha, one of them named Nithard, we have no authentic account of his marriage, and from 790 he was abbot of St Riquier, where his brilliant rule gained for him later the renown of a saint. Angilbert, however, was little like the true medieval saint; his poems reveal rather the culture and tastes of a man of the world, enjoying the closest intimacy with the imperial family. He accompanied Charlemagne to Rome in 800 and was one of the witnesses to his will in 814. Angilbert was the Homer of the emperor's literary circle, and was the probable author of an epic, of which the fragment which has been preserved describes the life at the palace and the meeting between Charlemagne and Leo III. It is a mosaic from Virgil, Ovid, Lucan and Fortunatus, composed in the manner of Einhard's use of Suetonius, and exhibits a true poetic gift. Of the shorter poems, besides the greeting to Pippin on his return from the campaign against the Avars (796), an epistle to David (Charlemagne) incidentally reveals a delightful picture of the poet living with his children in a house surrounded by pleasant gardens near the emperor's palace. The reference to Bertha, however, is distant and respectful, her name occurring merely on the list of princesses to whom he sends his salutation. Angilbert's poems nave been published by E. Dummler in the Monuments Germanise Historiea. For criticisms of this edition see Traube in Roederer's Schrifitn fur germaniscJu Philologie (1888). See also A. Molinier. Les Sources de I hiitoire de France. ANGINA PECTORIS (Latin for " pain of the chest "), a term applied to a violent paroxysm of pain, arising almost invariably in connexion with disease of the coronary arteries, a lesion causing progressive degeneration of the heart muscle (see HEART: Disease). An attack of angina pectoris usually comes on with a sudden seizure of pain, felt at first over the region of the heart, but radiating through the chest in various directions, and frequently extending down the left arm. A feeling of constriction and of suffocation accompanies the pain, although there k seldom actual difficulty in breathing. When the attack comes on, as it often does, in the course of some bodily exertion, the sufferer is at once brought to rest, and during the continuance of the paroxysm experiences the most intense agony. The countenance becomes pale, the surface of the body cold, the pulse feeble, and death appears to be imminent, when suddenly the attack subsides and complete relief is obtained. The dura- tion of a paroxysm rarely exceeds two or three minutes, but ii may last for a longer period. The attacks are apt to recur on slight exertion, and even in aggravated cases without any such exciting cause. Occasionally the first seizure proves fatal; but more commonly death takes place as the result of repeated attacks. Angina pectoris is extremely rare under middle life, and is much more common in males than in females. It must always be regarded as a disorder of a very serious nature. In the treatment of the paroxysm, nitrite of amyl has now replaced all other remedies. It can be carried by the patient in the form of nitrite of amyl pearls, each pearl containing the dose prescribed by the physician. Kept in this way the drug does not lose strength. As soon as the pain begins the patient crushes a pearl in his handkerchief and holds it to his mouth and nose. The relief given in this way is marvellous and usually takes place within a very few seconds. In the rare cases where this drug does not relieve, hypodermic injections of morphia are used. But on account of the well-known dangers of this drug, it should only be administered by a medical man. To prevent recurrence of the attacks something may be done by scrupulous attention to the general health, and by the avoidance of mental and physical strain. But the most important preventive of all is " bed," of which fourteen days must be enforced on the least premonition of anginal pain. Pseudo-angina. — In connexion with angina pectoris, a far more common condition must be mentioned that has now universally received the name of pseudo-angina, This includes the praecordial pains which very closely resemble those of true angina. The essential difference lies in the fact that pseudo- angina is independent of structural Hin th. m. and then they serve as the first green organs of the plant. The part of the stem below the cotyledons (hypocotyf) commonly plays the greater part in bringing this about. Ex- albuminous Dicotyledons usually store reserve-food in their cotyledons, which may in germination remain below ground (kypoteaf). In albuminous Monocotyledons the cotyledon itself, probably in consequence of its terminal position, is commonly the agent by which the embryo is thrust out of the seed, and it may function solely as a feeder, its extremity developing as a sucker through which the endosperm is absorbed, or it may become the first green organ, the terminal sucker dropping off with the seed-coat when the endosperm is exhausted. Exalbuminous Monocotyledons are either hydrophytes or strongly hydrophilous plants and have often peculiar features in germination. Distribution by seed appears to satisfy so well the requirements of Angiosperms that distribution by vegetative buds is only an occasional process. At the same time every bud on a s000' h" the capacity to form a new plant if placed 'n suitable conditions, as the horticultural practice of propagation by cuttings shows; in nature we see plants spreading by the rooting of their shoots, and buds we know may be freely formed not only on stems but on leaves and on roots. Where detachable buds are produced, which can be transported through the air to a distance, each of them is an incipient shoot which may have a root, and there is always reserve-food stored in some part of it. In essentials such a bud resembles a seed. A relation between such vegetative distribu- tion buds and production of flower is usually marked. Where there is free formation of buds there is little flower and commonly no seed, and the converse is also the case. Viviparous plants are .in illustration of substitution of vegetative buds for flower. The position of Angiosperms as the highest plant-group is unassailable, but of the point or points of their origin from the general stem of the plant kingdom, and of the path or paths of their evolution, we can as yet say little. y. Until well on in the Mesozoic period geological history tells us nothing about Angiosperms, and then only by their vegetative organs. We readily recognize in them now-a- days the natural classes of Dicotyledons and Monocotyledons distinguished alike in vegetative and in reproductive construction, yet showing remarkable parallel sequences in development; and we see that the Dicotyledons are the more advanced and show the greater capacity for further progressive evolution. But there is no sound basis for the assumption that the Dicoty- ledons are derived from Monocotyledons; indeed, the palaeonto- logical evidence seems to point to the Dicotyledons being the older. This, however, does not entitle us to assume the origin of Monocotyledons from Dicotyledons, although there is mani- festly a temptation to connect helobic forms of the former with ranal ones of the latter. There is no doubt that the phylum of Angiosperms has not sprung from that of Gymnosperms. Within each class the flower-characters as the essential feature of Angiosperms supply the clue to phytogeny, but the uncertainty regarding the construction of the primitive angiospermous flower give* a fundamental point of divergence in attempts to construct progressive sequences of the families. Simplicity of flower-structure has appeared to some to be always primitive, whilst by others it has been taken to be always derived. There is, however, abundant evidence that it may have the one or the other character in different caws. Apart from this, botanists are generally agreed that the concrescence of parts of the flower-whorls — in the gynaeceum as the seed-covering, and in the corolla as the seat of attraction, more than in the androecium and the calyx — is an indication of advance, as is also the concrescence that gives the condition of epigyny. Dorsiventrality is also clearly derived from radial construction, and anatropy of the ovule has followed atropy. We should expect the albuminous state of the seed to be an antecedent one to the ex- albuminous condition, and the recent discoveries in fertilization tend to confirm this view. Amongst Dicotyledons the gamopetalous forms are admitted to be the highest development and a dominant one of our epoch. Advance has been along two lines, markedly in relation to insect-pollination, one of which has culminated in the hypogynou* epipetatous bkarprilate forms with doniveatral often Urge iind loowly arranged flowers Mich u occur la which the Compo*itM represent the most elaborate type. In the polypetalou* form* progression from hypogyny to epigyny i* gener- ally recognized, and where dorsiventrality with insect-pollination ha* been established, a dominant group ha* beta developed a* in the Lcguminosae. The starting-point of the das*, however, and the position within it of apetalous families with frequently unisexual flower*, have provoked much discussion. In Monocotyledon* a similar advance from hypogyny to epigyny i* observed, and from the dorsiventral to the radial type of flower. In this connexion it » noteworthy that so many of the higher form* are adapted a* bulbous geophytes, or as aerophyte* to special xerophilou* condition*. The Gram meat offer a prominent example of a dominant lelf-pollinated or wind-pollinated family, and this may find explanation in a multiplicity of factors. Though Dot known for hi* artificial (or sexual) system, Linnaeus was impressed with the importance of elaborating a natural system of arrangement in which plants should be arranged according to their true affinities. In his Philosophia Bolanua (1751) Linnaeus grouped the genera then known into sixty-seven orders (fragmenlo). all except five of which are Angiosperms. He gave name* to these but did not characterize them or attempt to arrange them in larger groups. Some represent natural group* and had in several TTT« been already recognized by Ray and others, but the majority are. in the light of modern knowledge, very mixed. Well-defined poly- petalous and gamopetalous genera sometimes occur in the same order, and even Monocotyledons and Dicotyledons are >-l«— H together where they have some striking physiological character in common. Work on the line* suggested by the Linnaean fragments was continued in France by Bernard de Jussieu and his nephew, Antoine Laurent, and the arrangement suggested by the latter in bis Genera Ptanlarum secundum Ordinei NaturaUs duposita (1789) is the first which can claim to be a natural system. The order* are carefully characterized, and thoae of Angiosperms are grouped in fourteen classes under the two main divisions Monocotyledons and Dicoty- ledons. The former comprise three classes, which are distinguished by the relative position of the stamens and ovary; the eleven classes of the latter are based on the same set of character* and fall into the larger subdivisions Apetalae, Monopetalae and Polypetalae, characterized respectively by absence, union or freedom of the petals, and a subdivision, Dictinei Irrtfulares, a very unnatural group, including one class only. A. P. de Candolle introduced several improvements into the system. In his arrangement the last sub- division disappears, and the Dicotyledons fall into two group*, a larger containing those in which both calyx and corolla are present in the flower, and a smaller, Monochlamydeae, representing the Apetalae and Diflines Irregulares of Jussieu. The dirhlamydeous group is subdivided into three, Thalamiflorae, C'alyciflorae and Corolliflorae, depending on the position and union of the petals. This, which we may distinguish as the French system, finds its most perfect expression in the classic Genera Plantarum (1862-1883) at Bentham and Hooker, a work containing a description, based on careful examination of specimens, of all known genera of flowering plants. The subdivision is as follows: — Dicotyledons. I Thalamiflorae. Polypetalae 1 Disciflorae. ICalyciflorae. [Inferae. Gamopetalae -j Heteromerae. [ Bicarpellatae. Monochlamydeae in eight series. Monocotyledons in seven series. Of the Polypetalae, series i, Thalamiflorae, i* characterised by hypogynous petals and stamens, and contains 34 orders distributed in 6 larger groups or cohorts. Series 3, Disciflorae. take* it» name from a development of the floral axis which form* a ring or cushion at the base of the ovary or is broken up into glands; the ovary i* superior. It contains 23 orders in 4 cohorts. Series 3, C'alyciflorae. has petals and stamens perigynous, or sometime* superior. It contains 27 orders in 5 cohorts. Of the Gamopetalae, series i, Inferae, has an inferior ovary and stamens usually as many as the corolla-lobes. It contains 9 orders in 3 cohorts. Series 2, Heteromerae, has generally a superior ovary, stamens as many as the corolla-lobe* or more, and more than two carpels. It contains 12 orders in 3 cohorts. Series 3, Bicarpellatae. has generally a superior ovary and usually two carpels. It contains 24 orders in 4 cohorts. The eight series of Monochlamydeae, containing 36 orders, form groups characterized mainly by differences in the ovary and ovule*. and are now recognized a* of uneaual value. The seven series of Monocotyledons represent a sequence beginning with the most complicated epigynous orders, such as Orchideae and Scitamineae, and passing through the pctaloid hypogynous orders (series Coronarieae) of which Liliaceae is the representative to juncaceae and the palms (series Calycinae) where the perianth loses its petaloid character and thence to the Aroids, •crew-pine* and ANGKOR— ANGLE others where it is more or less aborted (series Nudiflorae). Series 6, Apocarpeae, is characterized by 5 carpels, and in the last series Glumaceae, great simplification in the flower is associated with a grass-like habit. The sequence of orders in the polypetalous subdivision of Dicoty- ledons undoubtedly represents a progression from simpler to more elaborate forms, but a great drawback to the value of the system is the inclusion among the Monochlamydeae of a number of orders which are closely allied with orders of Polypetalae though differing in absence of a corolla. The German systematist, A. W. Eichler, attempted to remove this disadvantage which since the time of Jussieu had characterized the French system, and in 1883 grouped the Dicotyledons in two subclasses. The earlier Chonpetalae embraces the Polypetalae and Mpnochlamydae of the French systems. It includes 21 series, and is an attempt to arrange as far as possible in a linear series those orders which are characterized by absence or freedom of petals. The second subclass, Gamopetalae, includes 9 series and culminates in those which show the most elaborate type of flower, the series Aggregatae, the chief representa- tive of which is the great and wide-spread order Compositae. A modification of Eichler's system, embracing the most recent views of the affinities of the orders of Angiosperms, has been put forward by Dr Adolf Engler of Berlin, who adopts the suggestive names Archichlamydeae and Metachlamydeae for the two subdivisions of Dicotyledons. Dr Engler is the principal editor of a large series of volumes which, under the title Die naturlichen Pflanzenfamilien, is a systematic account of all the known genera of plants and represents the work of many botanists. More recently in Das Pflanzenreich the same author organized a series of complete monographs of the families of seed-plants. As an attempt at a phylogenetic arrangement, Engler's system is now preferred by many botanists. More recently a startling novelty in the way of system has been produced by van Tieghem, as follows : Monocotyledons. Liorhizal Dicotyledons. Dicotyledons. INSEMINEAE. SEMINEAE. Unitegmineae. Bitegmineae. The most remarkable feature here is the class of Liorhizal Dicoty- ledons, which includes only the families of Nymphaeaceae and Gramineae. It is based upon the fact that the histological differentia- tion of the epidermis of their root is that generally characteristic of Monocotyledons, whilst they have two cotyledons — the old view of the epiblast as a second cotyledon in Gramineae being adopted. But the presence of a second cotyledon in grasses is extremely doubtful, and though there may be ground for reconsidering the position of Nymphaeaceae, their association with the grasses as a distinct class is not warranted by a comparative examination of the members of the two orders. Oyular characters determine the group- ing in the Dicotyledons, van Tieghem supporting the view that the integument, the outer if there be two, is the lamina of a leaf of which the funiclc is the petiole, whilst the nucellus is an outgrowth of this leaf, and the inner integument, if present, an indusium. The Insemineae include forms in which the nucellus is not developed, and therefore there can be no seed. The plants included are, however, mainly well-established parasites, and the absence of nucellus is only one of those characters of reduction to which parasites are liable. Even if we admit van Tieghem's interpretation of the integuments to be correct, the diagnostic mark of his unitegminous and biteg- minous groups is simply that of the absence or presence of an in- dusium, not a character of great value elsewhere, and, as we know, the number of the ovular coats is inconstant within the same family. At the same time the groups based upon the integuments are of much the same extent as the Polypetalae and Gamopetalae of other systems. We do not yet know the significance of this correla- tion, which, however, is not an invariable one, between number of integuments and union of petals. Within the last few years Prof. John Coulter and Dr C. J. Chamberlain of Chicago University have given a valuable general account of the morphology of Angiosperms as far as concerns the flower, and the series of events which ends in the formation of the seed (Morphology of Angiosperms, Chicago, 1903). AUTHORITIES. — The reader will find in the following works details of the subject and references to the literature: Bentham and Hooker, Genera Plantarum (London, 1862-1883); Eichler, Bluthen- diagramme (Leipzig, 1875-1878) ; Engler and Prantl, Die naturlichen Pflanzenfamilien (Leipzig, 1887-1899); Engler, Syllabus der Pflanzenfamilien, 3rd ed. (Berlin, 1903); Knuth, Handbuch der B/utenbiologie (Leipzig, 1898, 1899); Sachs, History of Botany, English ed. (Oxford, 1890); Solereder, Systematische Anatomic der Dicotyledonen (Stuttgart, 1899) ; van Tieghem, Elements de botan- ique; Coulter and Chamberlain, Morphology of Angiosperms (New York, 1903). (I. B. B.; A. B. R.) ANGKOR, an assemblage of ruins in Cambodia, the relic of the ancient Khmer civilization. They are situated in forests to the north of the Great Lake (Tonle-Sap), the most conspicuous of the remains being the town of Angkor-Thorn and the temple of Angkor-Vat, both of which lie on the right bank of the river Siem-Reap, a tributary of Tonle-Sap. Other remains of the same form and character lie scattered about the vicinity on both banks of the river, which is crossed by an ancient stone bridge. Angkor-Thorn lies about a quarter of a mile from the river. According to Aymonier it was begun about A. D. 860, in the reign of the Khmer sovereign Jayavarman III., and finished towards A.D. 900. It consists of a rectangular enclosure, nearly 2 m. in each direction, surrounded by a wall from 20 to 30 ft. in height. Within the enclosure, which is entered by five monu- mental gates, are the remains of palaces and temples, overgrown by the forest. The chief of these are: — (1) The vestiges of the royal palace, which stood within an enclosure containing also the pyramidal religious structure known as the Phimeanakas. To the east of this enclosure there extends a terrace decorated with magnificent reliefs. (2) The temple of Bayon, a square enclosure formed by galleries with colonnades, within which is another and more elaborate system of galleries, rectangular in arrangement and enclosing a cruciform structure, at the centre of which rises a huge tower with a circular base. Fifty towers, decorated with quadruple faces of Brahma, are built at intervals upon the galleries, the whole temple ranking as perhaps the most remarkable of the Khmer remains. Angkor-Vat, the best preserved example of Khmer architec- ture, lies less than a mile to the south of the royal city, within a rectangular park surrounded by a moat, the outer perimeter of which measures 6060 yds. On the west side of the park a paved causeway, leading over the moat and under a magnificent portico, extends for a distance of a quarter of a mile to the chief entrance of the main building. The temple was originally devoted to the worship of Brahma, but afterwards to that of Buddha; its construction is assigned by Aymonier to the first half of the 1 2th century A.D. It consists of three stages, connected by numerous exterior staircases and decreasing in dimensions as they rise, culminating in the sanctuary, a great central tower pyramidal in form. Towers also surmount the angles of the terraces of the two upper stages. Three galleries with vault- ing supported on columns lead from the three western portals to the second stage. They are connected by a transverse gallery, thus forming four square basins. Khmer decoration, profuse but harmonious, consists chiefly in the representa- tion of gods, men and animals, which are displayed on every flat surface. Combats and legendary episodes are often depicted; floral decoration is reserved chiefly for borders, mouldings and capitals. Sandstone of various colours was the chief material employed by the Khmers; limonite was also used. The stone was cut into huge blocks which are fitted together with great accuracy without the use of cement. See E. Aymonier, Le Cambodge (3 vols., 1900-1904); Doudart de Lagree, Voyage d' exploration en Indo-Chine (1872-1873); A. H. Mouhot, Travels in Indo-China, Cambodia and Laos (2 vols., 1864); Fournereau and Porcher, Les Ruines d' Angkor (1890) ; L. Delaporte, Voyage au Cambodge: I' architecture Khmer (1880) ; J. Moura, Le Royaume de Cambodge (2 vols., 18*83). ANGLE (from the Lat. angulus, a corner, a diminutive, of which the primitive form, angus, does not occur in Latin; cognate are the Lat. angere, to compress into a bend or to strangle, and the Gr. 07x0$, a bend; both connected with the Aryan root ank-, to bend: see ANGLING), in geometry, the inclination of one line or plane to another. Euclid (Elements, book i) defines a plane angle as the inclination to each other, in a plane, of two lines which meet each other, and do not lie straight with respect to each other (see GEOMETRY, EUCLIDEAN). According to Proclus an angle must be either a quality or a quantity, or a relationship. The first concept was utilized by Eudemus, who regarded an angle as a deviation from a straight line; the second by Carpus of Antioch, who regarded it as the interval or space between the intersecting lines; Euclid adopted the third concept, although his definitions of right, acute, and obtuse angles are certainly quantitative. A discussion of ANGLER— ANGLESEY these concept* and the various definition* of angles in Euclidean geometry is to be found in \V. B. Frankland, The Pint Book of Euclid's Elements (1905). Following Euclid, a right angle is formed by a straight line standing upon another straight line so as to make the adjacent angles equal; any angle less than a right angle is termed an acute angle, and any angle greater than a right angle an obtuse angle. The difference between an acute angle and a right angle is termed the complement of the angle, and between an angle and two right angles the supplement of the angle. The generalized view of angles and their measurement is treated in the article TRIGONOMETRY. A solid angle is definable as the space contained by three or more planes intersecting in a common point; it is familiarly represented by a corner. The angle between two planes is termed dihedral, between three trihedral, between any number more than three polyhedral. A spherical angle is a particular dihedral angle; it is the angle between two intersecting arcs on a sphere, and is measured by the angle between the planes containing the arcs and the centre of the sphere. The angle between a line and a curve ( mixed angle) or between two curves (curvilinear angle) is measured by the angle between the line and the tangent at the point of intersection, or between the tangents to both curves at their common point. Various names (now rarely, if ever, used) have been given to particular cases: — amphicyrtic (Gr. A/i^i, on both sides, Kvpria, convex) or cissoidal (Gr. nioobs, ivy), biconvex; xystroidal or sistroidal (Gr. (wrrpts, a tool for scraping), concavo-convex; amphicoelic (Gr. Koi\7j, a hollow) or angulus lunularis, biconcave. ANGLER, also sometimes called fishing-frog, frog-fish, sea- devil (Lophius piscatorius), a fish well known off the coasts of Great Britain and Europe generally, the grotesque shape of its body and its singular habits having attracted the attention of naturalists of all ages. To the North Sea fishermen this fish is known as the " monk," a name which more properly belongs to Khina squat ina, a fish allied to the skates. Its head is of enormous size, broad, flat and depressed, the remainder of the body appearing merely like an appendage. The wide mouth extends The Angler (Lophius piscatorius). all round the anterior circumference of the head; and both jaws are armed with bands of long pointed teeth, which are inclined inwards, and can be depressed so as to offer no impedi- ment to an object gliding towards the stomach, but to prevent its escape from the mouth. The pectoral and ventral fins are so articulated as to perform the functions of feet, the fish being enabled to move, or rather to walk, on the bottom of the sea, where it generally hides itself in the sand or amongst sea-weed. All round its head and also along the body the skin bears fringed appendages resembling short fronds of sea-weed, a structure which, combined with the extraordinary faculty of assimilating the colour of the body to its surroundings, assists this fish greatly in concealing itself in places which it selects on account of the abundance of prey. To render the organization of this creature perfect in relation to its wants, it is provided with three long filaments inserted along the middle of the head, which are, in fact, the detached and modified three first spines of the anterior dorsal fin. The filament most important in the economy of the angler is the first, which is the longest, terminates in a lappet, and is movable in every direction. The angler is believed to attract other fishes by means of its lure, and then to seize them with its enormous jaws. It is probable enough that smaller fishes are attracted in this way, but experiments have shown that the action of the jaws is automatic and depend* on contact of the prey with the tentacle. Its stomach is disten- sible in an extraordinary degree, and not rarely fishes have been taken out quite as large and heavy as their destroyer. It grows to a length of more than 5 ft.; specimens of 3 ft. are common. The spawn of the angler is very remarkable. It consists of a thin sheet of transparent gelatinous material i or 3 ft. broad and 25 to 30 ft. in length. The eggs in this sheet are in a single layer, each in its own little cavity. The spawn is free in the sea. The larvae are free-swimming and have the pelvic fins elongated into filaments. The British species is found all round the coasts of Europe and western North America, but becomes scarce beyond 60° N. lat.; it occurs also on the coasts of the Cape of Good Hope. A second species (Lophius budtga.ua) inhabits the Mediterranean, and a third (L. setigerus) the coasts of China and Japan. ANGLESEY. ARTHUR ANNESLEY. ist EARL or (1614-1686), British statesman, son of the ist Viscount Valentia (ex. 1621) and Baron Mountnorris (cr. 1628), and of Dorothy, daughter of Sir John Philipps of Picton Castle, Pembrokeshire, was born at Dublin on the loth of July 1614, was educated at Magdalen College, Oxford, and was admitted to Lincoln's Inn in 1634. Having made the grand tour he returned to Ireland; and being employed by the parliament in a mission to the duke of Ormonde, now reduced to the last extremities, he succeeded in conclud- ing a treaty with him on the igth of June 1647, thus securing the country from complete subjection to the rebels. In April 1647 he was returned for Radnorshire to the House of Commons. He supported the parliamentary as against the republican or army party, and appears to have been one of the members excluded in 1648. He sat in Richard Cromwell's parliament for Dublin city, and endeavoured to take his seat in the restored Rump Parliament of 1659. He was made president of the council in February 1660, and in the Convention Parliament sat for Carmarthen borough. The anarchy of the last months of the commonwealth converted him to royalism, and he showed great activity in bringing about the Restoration. He used his influence in moderating measures of revenge and violence, and while sitting in judgment on the regicides was ou the side of leniency. In November 1660 by his father's death he had become Viscount Valentia and Baron Mountnorris in the Irish peerage, and on the zoth April 1661 he was created Baron Annesley of Newport Pagnell in Buckinghamshire and earl of Anglesey in the peerage of Great Britain. He supported the king's administration in parliament, but opposed strongly the unjust measure which, on the abolition of the court of wards, placed the extra burden of taxation thus rendered necessary on the excise. His services in the administration of Ireland were especially valuable. He filled the office of vice-treasurer from 1660 till 1667, served on the committee for carrying out the declaration for the settlement of Ireland and on the committee for Irish affairs, while later, in 1671 and 1672, he was a leading member of various commissions appointed to investigate the working of the Acts of Settlement. In February 1661 he had obtained a captaincy of horse, and in 1667 he exchanged his vice-treasuryship of Ireland for the treasuryship of the navy. His public career was marked by great independence and fidelity to principle. On the 24th of July 1663 he alone signed a protest against the bill " for the encourage- ment of trade," on the plea that owing to the free export of coin and bullion allowed by the act, and to the importation of foreign commodities being greater than the export of home goods, " it must necessarily follow . . . that our silver will also be carried away into foreign parts and all trade fail for want of money."1 He especially disapproved of another clause in the same bill forbidding the importation of Irish cattle into England, a mischievous measure promoted by the duke of Buckingham, and he opposed again the bill brought in with that object in January 1 Protests of the Lords, by J. E. Thorold Rogers (1875), L 27: Carti's Life of Ormonde (1851), iv. 234; Part. Hist. iv. 384. i6 ANGLESEY 1667. This same year his naval accounts were subjected to an examination in consequence of his indignant refusal to take part in the attack upon Ormonde;1 and he was suspended from his office in 1668, no charge,however, against him being substantiated. He took a prominent part in the dispute in 1671 between the two Houses concerning the right of the Lords to amend money bills, and wrote a learned pamphlet on the question entitled The Privileges of the House of Lords and Commons (1702), in which the right of the Lords was asserted. In April 1673 he was appointed lord privy seal, and was disappointed at not obtaining the great seal the same year on the removal of Shaftesbury. In 1679 he was included in Sir W. Temple's new-modelled council. In the bitter religious controversies of the time Anglesey showed great moderation and toleration. In 1674 he is men- tioned as endeavouring to prevent the justices putting into force the laws against the Roman Catholics and Nonconformists.1 In the panic of the " Popish Plot " in 1678 he exhibited a saner judgment than most of his contemporaries and a conspicuous courage. On the 6th of December he protested with three other peers against the measure sent up from the Commons enforcing the disarming of all convicted recusants and taking bail from them to keep the peace; he was the only peer to dissent from the motion declaring the existence of an Irish plot; and though believing in the guilt and voting for the death of Lord Stafford, he interceded, according to his own account,3 with the king for him as well as for Langhorne and Plunket. His independent attitude drew upon him an attack by Dangerfield, and in the Commons by the attorney-general, Sir W. Jones, who accused him of endeavouring to stifle the evidence against the Romanists. In March 1679 he protested against the second reading of the bill for disabling Danby. In 1681 Anglesey wrote A Letter from a Person of Honour in the Country, as a rejoinder to the earl of Castlehaven, who had published memoirs on the Irish rebellion defending the action of the Irish and the Roman Catholics. In so doing Anglesey was held by Ormonde to have censured his conduct and that of Charles I. in concluding the " Cessation," and the duke brought the matter before the council. In 1682 he wrote The Account of Arthur, Earl cj Anglesey . . . of the true state of Your Majesty's Government and Kingdom, which was addressed to the king in a tone of censure and remonstrance, but appears not to have been printed till 1694.* In consequence he was dismissed on the 9th of August 1682 from the office of lord privy seal. In 1683 he appeared at the Old Bailey as a witness in defence of Lord Russell, and in June 1685 he protested alone against the revision of Stafford's attainder. He died at his home at Blechingdon in Oxfordshire on the 26th of April 1686, closing a career marked by great ability, statesmanship and business capacity, and by con- spicuous courage and independence of judgment. He amassed a large fortune in Ireland, in which country he had been allotted lands by Cromwell. The unfavourable character drawn of him by Burnet is certainly unjust and not supported by any evidence. Pepys, a far more trustworthy judge, speaks of him invariably in terms of respect and approval as a " grave, serious man," and com- mends his appointment as treasurer of the navy as that of "a very notable man and understanding and will do things regular and understand them himself."5 He was a learned and cultivated man and collected a celebrated library, which was dispersed at his death. Besides the pamphlets already mentioned, he wrote: — A True Account of the Whole Proceedings betwixt . . .the Duke of Ormond and . . . the Earl of Anglesey (1682); A Letter of Remarks upon Jovian (1683); other works ascribed to him being The King's Right of Indulgence in Matters Spiritual . . .asserted (1688); Truth Unveiled, to which is added a short Treatise on . . . Transubstantiation (1676); The Obligation resulting from the Oath of Supremacy (1688); and 1 Card's Ormonde, iv. 330, 340. * Col. of State Pap. Dom. (1673-1675), p. 152. ' Memoirs^S.y. 4 By Sir J. Thompson, his son-m-law. Reprin1 printed in Somers Tracts r. ap ' Diary (ed. Wheatfey, 1904), iv. 298, vii. 14. (Scott, 1812), yiii. 344, and in Parl. Hist. iv". app. xvi. leatley, England's Confusion (1659). Memoirs of Lord Anglesey were published by Sir P. Pett in 1693, but contain little biographical information and were repudiated as a mere imposture by Sir John Thompson (Lord Haversham), his son-in-law, in his preface to Lord Anglesey's State of the Government in 1694. The author however of the preface to The Rights of the Lords asserted (1702), while blaming their publication as "scattered and unfinished papers," admits their genuineness. Lord Anglesey married Elizabeth, daughter and co-heiress of Sir James Altham of Oxey, Hertfordshire, by whom, besides other children, he had James, who succeeded him, Altham, created Baron Altham, and Richard, afterwards 3rd Baron Altham. His descendant Richard, the 6th earl (d. 1761), left a son Arthur, whose legitimacy was doubted, and the peerage became extinct. He was summoned to the Irish House of Peers as Viscount Valentia, but was denied his writ to the parliament of Great Britain by a majority of one vote. He was created in 1793 earl of Mountnorris in the peerage of Ireland. All the male descendants of the ist earl of Anglesey became extinct in the person of George, 2nd earl of Mountnorris, in 1844, when the titles of Viscount Valentia and Baron Mountnorris passed to his cousin Arthur Annesley (1785-1863), who thus became loth Viscount Valentia, being descended from the ist Viscount Valentia. the father of the ist earl of Anglesey in the Annesley family. The ist viscount was also the ancestor of the Earls Annesley in the Irish peerage. AUTHORITIES. — Diet, of Nat. Biography, with authorities there collected; lives in Wood's Athenae Oxonienses (Bliss), iv. 181, Biographia Brilannica, and H. Walpole's Royal and Noble Authors (1806), iii. 288 (the latter a very inadequate review of Anglesey's character and career); also Bibliotheca Anglesiana . . . perThomam Philippum (1686) ; The Happy Future State of England, by Sir Peter Pett (1688); Great News from Poland (1683), where his religious tolerance is ridiculed; Somers Tracts (Scott, 1812), viii. 344; Notes of the Privy Council (Roxburghe Club, 1896); Col. of State Papers, Dom.;State Trials, viii. and ix. 619. (P. C. Y.) ANGLESEY, HENRY WILLIAM PAGET, ist MARQUESS or (1768-1854), British field-marshal, was born on the I7th of May 1 768. He was the eldest son of Henry Paget, ist earl of Uxbridge (d. 1812), and was educated at Westminster School and Christ Church, Oxford, afterwards entering parliament in 1790 as member for Carnarvon, for which he sat for six years. At the outbreak of the French Revolutionary wars Lord Paget (as he was then styled), who had already served in the militia, raised on his father's estate the regiment of Staffordshire volunteers, in which he was given the temporary rank of lieutenant-colonel (1793). The corps soon became part of the regular army as the 8oth Foot, and it took part, under Lord Paget 's command, in the Flanders campaign of 1794. In spite of his youth beheld a brigade command fora time, and gained also, during the campaign, his first experience of the cavalry arm, with which he was thence- forward associated. His substantive commission as lieutenant- colonel of the 1 6th Light Dragoons bore the date of the iSth of June 1795, and in 1796 he was made a colonel in the army. In 1795 he married Lady Caroline Elizabeth Villiers, daughter of the earl of Jersey. In April 1797 Lord Paget was transferred to a lieut.-colonelcy in the 7th Light Dragoons, of which regiment he became colonel in 1801. From the first he applied himself strenously to the improvement of discipline, and to the perfection of a new system of cavalry evolutions. In the short campaign of 1799 in Holland, Paget commanded the cavalry brigade, and in spite of the unsuitable character of the ground, he made, on several occasions, brilliant and successful charges. After the return of the expedition, he devoted himself zealously to his regiment, which under his command became one of the best corps in the service. In 1802 he was promoted major-general, and six years later lieutenant- general. In command of the cavalry of Sir John Moore's army during the Corunna campaign, Lord Paget won the greatest distinction. At Sahagun, Mayorga and Benavente, the British cavalry behaved so well under his leadership that Moore wrote: — " It is impossible for me to say too much in its praise. . . . Our cavalry is very superior in quality to any the French have, and ANGLESEY «7 thr right spirit has been infused into them by the example and instruction of their . . . leaders . . . ." At Benavente one of Napoleon's best cavalry leaden. General Lefebvrc Desnoettes, was taken prisoner. Corunna was Paget's last service in the Peninsula. His liaison with the wife of Henry Wellesley. after- wards Lord Cowley. made it impossible at that time for him to serve with Wellington, whose cavalry, on many occasions during the succeeding campaigns, felt the want of the true cavalry leader to direct them. His only war service from 1809 to 1815 was in the disastrous Walchercn expedition (i8og) in which he commanded a division. During these years he occupied himself with his parliamentary duties as member for Milborne Port, which he represented almost continuously up to his father's death in 1811, when he took his seat in the House of Lords as earl of Uxbridge. In 1810 he was divorced and married Mrs Wellesley, who had about the same time been divorced from her husband. Lady Paget was soon afterwards married to the duke of Argyll. In 1815 Lord Uxbridge received command of the British cavalry in Flanders. At a moment of danger such as that of Napoleon's return from Elba, the services of the best cavalry general in the British army could not be neglected. Wellington placed the greatest confidence in him, and on the eve of Waterloo extended his command so as to include the whole of the allied cavalry and horse artillery. He covered the retirement of the allies from Qua t re Bras to Waterloo on the iyth of June, and on the iSth gained the crowning distinction of his military career in leading the great cavalry charge of the British centre, which checked and in part routed D'Erlon's corps d'armte (see WATERLOO CAMPAIGN). Freely exposing his own life throughout, the earl received, by one of the last cannon shots fired, a severe wound in the leg, necessitating amputation. Five days later the prince regent created him marquess of Anglesey in recognition of his brilliant services, which were regarded universally as second only to those of the duke himself. He was made a G.C.B. and he was also decorated by many of the allied sovereigns. In 1818 the marquess was made a knight of the Garter, in 1819 he became full general, and at the coronation of George IV. he acted as lord high steward of England. His support of the proceedings against Queen Caroline made him for a time un- popular, and when he was on one occasion beset by a crowd, who compelled him to shout " The Queen," he added the wish, " May all your wives be like her." At the close of April 1827 he became a member of the Canning administration, taking the post of master-general of the ordnance, previously held by Wellington. He was at the same time sworn a member of the privy council. Under the Wellington administration he accepted the appoint- ment of lord-lieutenant of Ireland (March 1828), and in the discharge of his important duties he greatly endeared himself to the Irish people. The spirit in which he acted and the aims which he steadily set before himself contributed to the allaying of party animosities, to the promotion of a willing submission to the laws, to the prosperity of trade and to the extension and improvement of education. On the great question of the time his views were opposed to those of the government. He saw dearly that the time was come when the relief of the Catholics from the penal legislation of the past was an indispensable measure, and in December 1828 he addressed a letter to the Roman Catholic primate of Ireland distinctly announcing his view. This led to his recall by the government, a step sincerely lamented by the Irish. He pleaded for Catholic emancipation in parliament, and on the formation of Earl Grey's administration in November 1830, he again became lord-lieutenant of Ireland. The times were changed; the act of emancipation had been passed, and the task of viceroy in his second tenure of office was to resist the agitation for repeal of the union carried on by O'Connell. He felt it his duty now to demand Coercion Acts for the security of the public peace; his popularity was diminished, differences appeared in the cabinet on the difficult subject, and in July 1 833 the ministry resigned. To the marquess of Anglesey Ireland is indebted for the board of education, the origination of which may perhaps be reckoned as the most memorable act of his viceroyalty. For thirteen years after his retirement he remained out of office, and took little part in the affain of govern- ment He joined the Russell administration in July 1846 a» muter-general of the ordnance, finally retiring with Us chi March 1852. His promotion in the army wa» completed by hi» advancement to the rank of field-marshal in 1846. Four yean before, he exchanged his colonelcy of the ;th Light Dragoon* which he had held over forty yean, for that of the Royal Honr Guards. He died on the 2gth of April 1854. The marquess had a large family by each of his two wives, two ions and six daughten by the first and six tons and four daughter* by the second. His eldest son, Henry, succeeded him in the marquessate; but the title passed rapidly in succession to the 3rd. 4th and 5th marquesses. The latter, whose extravagances were notorious, died in 1005, when the title passed to his cousin. Other members of the Paget family distinguished themselves in the army and the navy. Of the first marquess's brothers one. SIR CHARLES PAGET (1778-1830), rose to the rank of vice-admiral in the Royal Navy; another, General SIR EDWARD FACET (1775-1840), won great distinction by his skilful and resolute handling of a division at Corunna, and from 1822 to 1825 was commander-in-chief in India. One of the marquess's sons by his second marriage, LORD CLARENCE EDWARD PAGET (1811-1895), became an admiral; another, LORD GEORGE AUGUSTUS FREDERICK PAGET (1818-1880), led the 4th Light Dragoons in the charge of the Light Brigade at Balaklava, and subsequently commanded the brigade, and, for a short time, the cavalry division in the Crimea. In 1865 he was made inspector-general of cavalry, in 1871 lieutenant-general and K.C.B., and in 1877 full general. His Crimean journals were published in 1881. ANGLESEY, or ANGLESKA, an insular northern county of Wales. Its area is 176,630 acres or about 276 sq. m. Anglesey, in the see of Bangor, is separated from the mainland by the Mcnai Straits (Afon Menai), over which were thrown Telford's suspension bridge, in 1826, and the Stephenson tubular railway bridge in 1850. The county is flat, with slight risings such as Parys, Cadaii Mynachdy (or Monachdy, i.e. "chair of the monastery"; there is a Nanner, " convent," not far away) and Holyhead Mountain. There are a few lakes, such as Cors cerrig y daran, but rising water is generally scarce. The climate is humid, the land poor for the most part compared with its old state of fertility, and there are few industries. As regards geology, the younger strata in Anglesey rest upon a foundation of very old pre-Cambrian rocks which appear at the surface in three areas :— (i) a western region including Holyhead and Llanfaethlu, (2) a central area about Aberffraw and Tref- draeth, and (3) an eastern region which includes Newborough. Caerwen and Pentraeth. These pre-Cambrian rocks are schists and slates, often much contorted and disturbed. The general line of strike of the formations in the island is from N.E. toS.W. A belt of granitic rocks lies immediately north-west of the central pre-Cambrian mass, reaching from Llanfaelog near the coast to the vicinity of Llanerchymedd. Between this granite and the pre-Cambrian of Holyhead is a narrow tract of Ordovician slates and grits with Llandovery beds in places; this tract spreads out in the N. of the island between Dulas Bay and Carmel Point. A small patch of Ordovician strata lies on the northern side of Beaumaris. In parts, these Ordovician rocks are much folded, crushed and metamorphosed, and they are associated with schists and altered volcanic rocks which are probably pre-Cambrian. Between the eastern and central pre-Cambrian masses carboni- ferous rocks are found. The carboniferous limestone occupies a broad area S. of Ligwy Bay and Pentraeth, and sends a narrow spur in a south-westerly direction by Llangcfni to Malldraeth sands. The limestone is underlain on the N.W. by a red basement conglomerate and yellow sandstone (sometimes considered to be of Old Red Sandstone age). Limestone occurs again on the N. coast about Llanfihangel and Llangoed; and in the S.W. round Llanidan on the border of the Menai Strait. Puffin Island is made of carboniferous limestone. Malldraeth Marsh is occupied by coal measures, and a small patch of the same formation appears near Tall-y-foel Ferry on the Menai Straits. A patch of granitic and felsitic rocks form Parys Mountain, where copper and iron i8 ANGLESITE— ANGLI ochre have been worked. Serpentine (Mona Marble) is found near Llanfaerynneubwll and upon the opposite shore in Holyhead. There are abundant evidences of glaciation, and much boulder clay and drift sand covers the older rocks. Patches of blown sand occur on the S.W. coast. The London & North-Western railway (Chester and Holy- head branch) crosses Anglesey from Llanfairpwllgwyngyll to Gaerwen and Holyhead (Caer Gybi), also from Gaerwen to Amlwch. The staple of the island is farming, the chief crops being turnips, oats, potatoes, with flax in the centre. Copper (near Amlwch), lead, silver, marble, asbestos, lime and sandstone, marl, zinc and coal have all been worked in Anglesey, coal especially at Malldraeth and Trefdraeth. The population of the county in 1901 was 50,606. There is no parliamentary borough, but one member is returned for the county. It is in the north- western circuit, and assizes are held at Beaumaris, the only municipal borough (pop. 2326). Amlwch (2994), Holyhead (10,079), Llangefni (1751) and Menai Bridge (Pont y Borth, 1700) are urban districts. There are six hundreds and seventy- eight parishes. M6n (a cow) is the Welsh name of Anglesey, itself a corrupted form of O.E., meaning the Isle of the Angles. Old Welsh names are Ynys Dywyll (" Dark Isle ") and Ynys y cedairn (cedyrn or kedyrn; " Isle of brave folk "). It is the Mona of Tacitus (Ann. riv. 29, Agr. xiv. 18), Pliny the Elder (iv. 16) and Dio Cassius (62). It is called Mam Cymru by Giraldus Cambrensis. Clas Merddin, Y vel Ynys (honey isle), Ynys Prydein, Ynys Brut are other names. According to the Triads (67), Anglesey was once part of the mainland, as geology proves. The island was the seat of the Druids, of whom 28 cromlechs remain, on uplands over- looking the sea, e.g. at Plas Newydd. The Druids were attacked in A.D. 6 1 by Suetonius Paulinus, and by Agricola in A.D. 78. In the sth century Caswallon lived here, and here, at Aberffraw, the princesof Gwynedd lived till 1277. Thepresentroadfrom Holyhead to Llanfairpwllgwyngyll is originally Roman. British and Roman camps, coins and ornaments have been dug up and discussed, especially by the Hon. Mr Stanley of Penrhos. Pen Caer Gybi is Roman. The island was devastated by the Danes (Dub Gint or black nations, genies), especially in A.D. 853. See Edw. Breese, Kalendar of Gwynedd (Venedocia), on Anglesey, Carnarvon and Merioneth (London, 1873); and The History of Powys Fadog. ANGLESITE, a mineral consisting of lead sulphate, PbSO4, crystallizing in the orthorhombic system, and isomorphous with barytes and celestite. It was first recognized as a mineral species by Dr Withering in 1783, who discovered it in the Parys copper- mine in Anglesey; the name anglesite, from this locality, was given by F. S. Beudant in 1832. The crystals from Anglesey, which were formerly found abundantly on a matrix of dull limonite, are small in size and simple in form, being usually bounded by four faces of a prism and four faces of a dome; they are brownish-yellow in colour owing to a stain of limonite. Crystals from some other localities, notably from Monteponi in Sardinia, are transparent and colourless, possessed of a brilliant adamantine lustre, and usually modified by numerous bright faces. The variety of combinations and habits presented by the crystals is very extensive, nearly two hundred distinct forms being figured by V. von Lang in his monograph of the species; without measurement of the angles the crystals are frequently difficult to decipher. The hardness is 3 and the specific gravity 6-3. There are distinct cleavages parallel to the faces of the prism jno( and the basal plane |ooi(, but these are not so well developed as in the isomorphous minerals barytes and celestite. Anglesite is a mineral of secondary origin, having been formed by the oxidation of galena in the upper parts of mineral lodes where these have been affected by weathering processes. At Monteponi the crystals encrust cavities in glistening granular galena; and from Leadhills, in Scotland, pseudomorphs of anglesite after galena are known. At most localities it is found as isolated crystals in the lead-bearing lodes, but at some places, in Australia and Mexico, it occurs as large masses, and is then mined as an ore of lead, of which -the pure mineral contains 68 %. ANGLI, ANGLH or ANGLES, a Teutonic people mentioned by Tacitus in his Germania (cap. 40) at the end of the ist century. He gives no precise indication of their geographical position, but states that, together with six other tribes, including the Varini (the Warni of later times), they worshipped a goddess named Nerthus, whose sanctuary was situated on " an island in the Ocean." Ptolemy in his Geography (ii. n. § 15), half a century later, locates them with more precision between the Rhine, or rather perhaps the Ems, and the Elbe, and speaks of them as one of the chief tribes of the interior. Unfortunately, however, it is clear from a comparison of his map with the evidence furnished by Tacitus and other Roman writers that the indica- tions which he gives cannot be correct. Owing to the uncertainty of these passages there has been much speculation regarding the original home of the Angli. One theory, which however has little to recommend it, is that they dwelt in the basin of the Saale (in the neighbourhood of the canton Engilin), from which region the Lex Angliorum et Werinorum hoc est Thuringorum is believed by many to have come. At the present time the majority of scholars believe that the Angli had lived from the beginning on the coasts of the Baltic, probably in the southern part of the Jutish peninsula. The evidence for this view is derived partly from English and Danish traditions dealing with persons and events of the 4th century (see below), and partly from the fact that striking affinities to the cult of Nerthus as described by Tacitus are to be found in Scandinavian, especially Swedish and Danish, religion. Investigations in this subject have rendered it very probable that the island of Nerthus was Sjaelland (Zealand), and it is further to be observed that the kings of Wessex traced their ancestry ultimately to a certain Scyld, who is clearly to be identified with Skioldr, the mythical founder of the Danish royal family (Skioldungar). In English tradition this person is connected with " Scedeland " (pi.), a name which may have been applied to Sjaelland as well as Skane, while in Scandinavian tradition he is specially associated with the ancient royal residence at Leire in Sjaelland. Bede states that the Angli before they came to Britain dwelt in a land called Angulus, and similar evidence is given by the Historia Brittonum. King Alfred and the chronicler ^Ethelweard identified this place with the district which is now called Angel in the province of Schleswig (Slesvig), though it may then have been of greater extent, and this identification agrees very well with the indications given by Bede. Full confirmation is afforded by English and Danish traditions relating to two kings named Wermund (q.v.) and Offa (q.v.), from whom the Mercian royal family were descended, and whose exploits are connected with Angel, Schleswig and Rendsburg. Danish tradition has pre- served record of two governors of Schleswig, father and son, in their service, Frowinus (Freawine) and Wigo (Wig), from whom the royal family of Wessex claimed descent. During the 5th century the Angli invaded this country (see BRITAIN, Anglo- Saxon), after which time their name does not recur on the con- tinent except in the title of the code mentioned above. The province of Schleswig has proved exceptionally rich in prehistoric antiquities which date apparently from the 4th and 5th centuries. Among the places where these have been found, special mention should be made of the large cremation cemetery at Borgstedterfeld, between Rendsburg and Eckernforde, which has yielded many urns and brooches closely resembling those found in heathen graves in England. Of still greater importance are the great deposits at Thorsbjaerg (in Angel) and Nydam, which contained large quantities of arms, ornaments, articles of clothing, agricultural implements, &c., and in the latter case even ships. By the help of these discoveries we are able to reconstruct a fairly detailed picture of English civilization in the age preceding the invasion of Britain. AUTHORITIES. — Bede, Hist. Ecc. i. 15; King Alfred's version of Orosius, i. I. §§ 12, 19; Athelweard's Chronicle, lib. i. For traditions concerning the kings of Angel, see under OFFA (i). L. Weiland, ANGLICAN COMMUNION Dit Antfln (i««9): A. Erdmann. Cbtr die Ihimal und den Namen 4trA*t<'* (I'pnU. 1890— cf. II. Moller in the Antfttrrfur deutukti AUtrltim **d dmtsdu LiUfralur. xxii. 129 ff.); A. Kock in the .TM* TuUkriJt (Stockholm). 1895. xv. p. lt>\ ff. : G. SchUttr, Vor Antlemt Tyikert t (Klcnubore, 1900); H. Munro Chaare simple and consist in placing before the fish an exact imitation of the insect on which it is feeding, in such a way that it shall float down exactly as if it were an insect of the same kind. To this end special tackle and special methods have been found necessary. Not only the fly but also the line has to float on the water; the line is very heavy and therefore the rod (split-cane or greenheart) must be stiff and powerful; special precautions have to be taken that the fly shall float unhindered and shall not " drag "; special casts have to be made to counteract awkward winds; and, lastly, the matching of the fly with the insect on the water is a matter of much nicety, for the water-flies are of many shades and colours. Many brains have busied themselves with the solution of these problems with such success that dry-fly fishing is now a finished art. The entomology of the dry-fly stream has been studied very deeply by Mr F. M. Halford, the late G. S. Marryat and others, and improvements both in flies and tackle have been very great. Quite lately, however, there has been a movement in favour of light rods for dry-fly fishing as well as wet-fly fishing. The English split-cane rod for dry-fly work weighs about an ounce to the foot, rather more or rather less. The American rod of similar action and material weighs much less — approximately 6 oz. to 10 ft. The light rod, it is urged, is much less tiring and is quite powerful enough for ordinary purposes. Against it is claimed that dry-fly fishing is not "ordinary purposes," that chalk-stream weeds are too strong and chalk-stream winds too wild for the light rod to be efficient against them. However, the light rod is growing in popular favour; British manufacturers are building rods after the American style; and anglers are taking to them more and more. The dry-fly method is now practised by many fishermen both in Germany and France, but it has scarcely found a footing as yet in the United States or Canada. Fishing with the Natural Fly. — The natural fly is a very killing bait for trout, but its use is not wide-spread except in Ireland. In Ireland " dapping " with the green drake or the daddy- longlegs is practised from boats on most of the big loughs. A light whole-cane rod of stiff build, about 16 ft. in length, is required with a floss-silk line light enough to be carried out on the breeze; the " dap " (generally two mayflies or daddy-long- legs on a small stout-wired hook) is carried out by the breeze and just allowed to touch the water. When a trout rises it is well to count " ten " before striking. Very heavy trout are caught in this manner during the mayfly season. In the North " creeper- fishing " is akin to this method, but the creeper is the larva of the stone-fly, not a fly itself, and it is cast more like an ordinary fly and allowed to sink. Sometimes, however, the mature insect is used with equally good results. A few anglers still practise the old style of dapping or " dibbling " after the manner advised by Izaak Walton. It is a deadly way of fishing small overgrown brooks. A stiff rod and strong gut are necessary, and a grass- hopper or almost any large fly will serve for bait. Other Methods. — The other methods of taking trout principally employed are spinning, live-baiting and worming. For big river trout such as those of the Thames a gudgeon or bleak makes the best spinning or live bait, for great lake trout (ferox) a small fish of their own species and for smaller trout a minnow. There are numberless artificial spinning-baits which kill well at times, the Devon being perhaps the favourite. The use of the drop-minnow, which is trolling on a lesser scale, is a killing method employed more in the north of England than elsewhere. The worm is mostly deadly in thick water, so deadly that it is looked on askance. But there is a highly artistic mode of fishing known as " clear-water worming." This is most successful when rivers are low and weather hot, and it needs an expert angler to succeed in it. The worm has to be cast up-stream rather like a fly, and the method is little inferior to fly-fishing in delicacy and difficulty. The other baits for trout, or rather the other baits which they will take sometimes, are legion. Wasp-grubs, maggots, cater- pillars, small frogs, bread — there is very little the fish will not take. But except in rural districts little effort is made to catch trout by means less orthodox than the fly, minnow and worm, and the tendency nowadays both in England and America is to restrict anglers where possible to the use of the artificial fly only. Grayling. — The only other member of the salmon family in England which gives much sport to the fly-fisher is the grayling, a fish which possesses the recommendation of rising well in winter. It can be caught with either wet or dry fly, and with the same tackle as trout, which generally inhabit the same stream. Gray- ling will take most small trout-flies, but there are many patterns of fly tied specially for them, most of them founded on the red tag or the green insect. Worms and maggots are also largely used in some waters for grayling, and there is a curious con- trivance known as the " grasshopper," which is a sort of com- promise between the fly and bait. It consists of a leaded hook round the shank of which is twisted bright-coloured wool. The point is tipped with maggots, and the lure, half artificial, half natural, is dropped into deep holes and worked up and down in the water. In some places the method is very killing. The grayling has been very prominent of late years owing to the controversy " grayling versus trout." Many people hold that grayling injure a trout stream by devouring trout-ova and trout- food, by increasing too rapidly and in other ways. Beyond, however, proving the self-evident fact that a stream can only support a given amount of fish-life, the grayling's opponents do not seem to have made out a very good case, for no real evidence of its injuring trout has been adduced. Char. — The chars (Salvelinus) are a numerous family widely distributed over the world, but in Great Britain are not very important to the angler. One well-defined species (Salvelinus alpinus) is found in some lakes of Wales and Scotland, but principally in Westmorland and Cumberland. It sometimes takes a small fly but is more often caught with small artificial spinning-baits. The fish seldom exceeds iflb in Great Britain, though in Scandinavia it is caught up to 5 ft or more. There are some important chars in America, fontinalis being one of the most esteemed. Some members of the genus occasionally attain a size scarcely excelled by the salmon. Among them are the Great Lake trout of America, Cristivomer namaycush, and the Danubian " salmon " or huchen, Salmo hucho. Both of these fish are caught principally with spinning-baits, but both will on occasion take a salmon-fly, though not with any freedom after they have reached a certain size. An attempt has been made to introduce huchen into the Thames but at the time of writing the result cannot yet be estimated. Pike. — The pike (Esox Indus), which after the Salmonidae is the most valued sporting fish in Great Britain, is a fish of prey pure and simple. Though it will occasionally take a large fly, a worm or other ground-bait, its systematic capture is only essayed with small fish or artificial spinning-baits. A live bait is supposed to be the most deadly lure for big pike, probably because it is the method employed by most anglers. But spinning is more artistic and has been found quite successful enough by those who give it a fair and full trial. Trolling, the method of " sink and draw " with a dead bait, referred to previously in this article, is not much practised nowadays, though at one time it was very popular. It was given up because the traditional form of trolling-tackle was such that the bait had to be swallowed by the pike before the hook would take hold, and that necessitated killing all fish caught, whether large or small. The same objection formerly applied to ANGLING 29 live-baiting with what was known as a gorge-hook. Now, how - rvt-r, what is called snap-tackle is almost invariably used in live hailing, and the system is by some few anglers extended to the other method too. Pike are autumn and winter fish and are at their best in December. They grow to a very considerable size, fish of 30 th being regarded as " specimens " and an occasional thirty-pounder rewarding the zealous and fortunate. The heaviest pike caught with a rod in recent years which is sufficiently authenticated, weighed 37 tt>, but heavier specimens are said to have been taken in Irish lakes. River pike up to about loth in weight are excellent eating. America has several species of pike, of which the muskelunge of the great lake region (Ksox masquinongy) is the most important. It is a very fine fish, excelling Esox lucius both in size and looks. From the angler's point of view it may be considered simply as a large pike and may be caught by similar methods. It occasion- ally reaches the weight of 80 Ib or perhaps more. The pickerel (Esox reticulattu) is the only other of the American pikes which gives any sport. It reaches a respectable size, but is as inferior to the pike as the pike is to the muskelunge. Perch. — Next to the pikes come the perches, also predatory fishes. The European perch (Perca flwiattiis) has a place by itself in the affections of anglers. When young it is easy to catch by almost any method of fishing, and a large number of Walton's disciples have been initiated into the art with its help. Worms and small live-baits are the principal lures, but at times the fish will take small bright artificial spinning-baits well, and odd attrac- tions such as boiled shrimps, caddis-grubs, small frogs, maggots, wasp-grubs, &c. are sometimes successful. The drop-minnow is one of the best methods of taking perch. Very occasionally, and principally in shallow pools, the fish will take an artificial fly greedily, a small salmon-fly being the best thing to use in such a case. A perch of 2 Ib is a good fish, and a specimen of 4} Ib about the limit of angling expectation. There have been rare instances of perch over 5 Ib, and there are legends of eight- pounders, which, however, need authentication. Black Bass. — The yellow perch of America (Perca flavescens) is very much like its European cousin in appearance and habits, but it is not so highly esteemed by American anglers, because they are fortunate in being possessed of a better fish in the black bass, another member of the perch family. There are two kinds of black bass (Micropterus salmoides and Micropterus dolomieu), the large- mouthed and the small-mouthed. The first is more a lake and pond fish than the second, and they are seldom found in the same waters. As the black bass is a fly-taking fish and a strong fighter, it is as valuable to the angler as a trout and is highly esteemed. Bass-flies are sui generis, but incline more to the nature of salmon- flies than trout-flies. An artificial frog cast with a fly-rod or very light spinning-rod is also a favourite lure. For the rest the fish will take almost anything in the nature of worms or small fish, like its cousin the perch. A 4 Ib bass is a good fish, but five- pounders are not uncommon. Black bass have to some extent been acclimatized in France. The ru/e or pope (Acerina vulgaris) is a little fish common in the Thames and many other slow-flowing English rivers. It is very like the perch in shape but lacks the dusky bars which distinguish the other, and is spotted with dark brown spots on a golden olive background. It is not of much use to the angler as it seldom exceeds 3 oz. in weight. It takes small worms, maggots and similar baits greedily, and is often a nuisance when the angler is expecting better fish. Allied to the perches is the pike-perch, of which two species are of some importance to the angler, one the wall-eye of eastern America (Stizostedion vitreunt) and the other the zander of Central Europe (Sandrus lucioperca). The last especially is a fine fighter, occasionally reaching a weight of 20 Ib. It is usually caught by spinning, but will take live-baits, worms and other things of that nature. The Danube may be described as its headquarters. It is a fish whose sporting importance will be more realized as anglers on the continent become more numerous. Cyprinidae. — The carp family (Cyprinidae) is a large one and its members constitute the majority of English sporting fishes. In America the various kinds of chub, sucker, dace, shiner, &c. are little esteemed and are regarded as spoils for the youthful angler only, or as bait* for the better fish in which the coo tinea t it so rkh. In England, however, the Cyprinidae have an honoured place in the affection* of all who angle "-at the bottom," while in Europe some of them have a commercial value a* food-fishe*. In India at least one member of the family, the mahsecr, take* rank with the salmon as a " big game " fi*h. Carp, Tench, Barbel, Bream. — The family as represented in England may be roughly divided into two groups, those which feed on the bottom purely and those which occasionally take flic*. The first consists of carp, tench, barbel and bream. Of these carp, tench and bream are either river or pool fi*b, while the barbel is found only in rivers, principally in the Thames and Trent. The carp grows to a great size, 20 Ib being not unknown; tench are big at 5 Ib; barbel have been caught up to 14 Ib or rather more; and bream occasionally reach 8 Ib, while • fish of over ii lh is on record. All these fish are capricious feeders, carp and barbel being particularly undependable. In some waters it seems to be impossible to catch the large specimens, and the angler who seeks to gain trophies in either branch of the sport needs both patience and perseverance. Tench and bream are not quite so difficult. The one fish can sometimes be caught in great quantities, and the other is generally to be enticed by the man who knows how to set about it. Two main principles have to be observed in attacking all these fish, ground-baiting and early rising. Ground-baiting consists in casting food into the water so as to attract the fish to a certain spot and to induce them to feed. Without it very little can be done with shy and large fish of these species. Early rising is necessary because they only feed freely. as a rule, from daybreak till about three hours after sun-rise. The heat of a summer or early autumn day makes them sluggish, but an hour or two in the evening is sometimes remunerative. The bait for them all should usually lie on the bottom, and it consists mainly of worms, wasp and other grubs, pastes of various kinds; and for carp, and sometimes bream, of vegetable baits such as small boiled potatoes, beans, peas, stewed wheat, pieces of banana, &c. None of these fish feed well in winter. Roach, Rudd, Dace, Chub. — The next group of Cyfrmidae consists of fish which will take a bait similar to those already mentioned and also a fly. The sizes which limit the ordinary angler's aspirations are roach about 2 Ib, rudd about 2} Ib, dace about i Ib and chub about 5 Ib. There are instances of individuals heavier than this, one or two roach and many rudd of over 3 Ib being on record, while dace have been caught up to i R> 6 oz., and chub of over 7 Ib are not unknown. Roach only take a fly as a rule in very hot weather when they are near the surface, or early in the season when they are on the shallows; the others will take it freely all through the summer. Ordinary trout flies do well enough for all four specks. but chub often prefer something larger, and big bushy lures called " palmers," which represent caterpillars, are generally used for them. The fly may be used either wet or dry for all these fish, am! there is little to choose between the methods as regards effective- ness. Fly-fishing for these fish is a branch of angling which migh t be more practised than it is, as the sport is a very fair substitute for trout fishing. Roach, chub and dace feed on bottom food and give good sport all the winter. Gudgeon, Bleak, Minnow, ffc— The small fry of European waters, gudgeon, bleak, minnow, loach, stickleback and bullhead, are principally of value as bait for other fish, though the first- named species gives pretty sport on fine tackle and makes a succulent dish. Small red worms are the best bait for gudgeon and minnows, a maggot or small fly for bleak, and the rest are most easily caught in a small-meshed net. The loach is used principally in Ireland as a trout bait, and the other two are of small account as hook-baits, though sticklebacks are a valuable form of food for trout in lakes and pools. M ikseer.— Among the carps of India, several of which give good sport, special mention must be made of the mahseer (Bar bus moid}, a fish which rivals the salmon both in size and strength. It reaches a weight of 60 Ib and sometimes more and is fished for in much the same manner as salmon, with the ANGLING difference that after about 10 Ib it takes a spinning-bait, usually a heavy spoon-bait, better than a fly. Cat-fish. — None of the fresh-water cat-fishes (of which no example is found in England) are what may be called sporting fish, but several may be caught with rod and line. There are several kinds in North America, and some of them are as heavy as 150 Ib, but the most important is the wels (Silurus glanis) of the Danube and neighbouring waters. This is the largest European fresh-water fish, and it is credited with a weight of 300 Ib or more. It is a bottom feeder and will take a fish-bait either alive or dead; it is said occasionally to run at a spinning bait when used very deep. Burbot. — The burbot (Lota vulgaris) is the only fresh-water member of the cod family in Great Britain, and it is found only in a few slow-flowing rivers such as the Trent, and there not often, probably because it is a fish of sluggish habits which feeds only at night. It reaches a weight of 3 Ib or more, and will take most flesh or fish baits on the bottom. The burbot of America has similar characteristics. Sturgeon. — The" sturgeons, of which there are a good many species in Europe and America, are of no use to the angler. They are anadromous fishes of which little more can be said than that a specimen might take a bottom bait once in a way. In Russia they are sometimes caught on long lines armed with baited hooks, and occasionally an angler hooks one. Such a case was reported from California in The Field of the igth of August 1905. Shad. — Two other anadromous fish deserve notice. The first is the shad, a herring-like fish of which two species, allicc and twaite (Clupea alosa and C. finta), ascend one or two British and several continental rivers in the spring. The twaite is the more common, and in the Severn, Wye and Teme it sometimes gives very fair sport to anglers, taking worm and occasionally fly or small spinning bait. It is a good fighter, and reaches a weight of about 3 Ib. Its sheen when first caught is particularly beautiful. America also has its shads. Flounder. — The other is the flounder (Pleurontctcs flesus), the only flat-fish which ascends British rivers. It is common a long way up such rivers as the Severn, far above tidal influence, and it will take almost any flesh-bait used on the bottom. A flounder of i Ib is, in a river, a large one, but heavier examples are some- times caught. Eel. — The eel (Anguilla vulgaris) is regarded by the angler more as a nuisance than a sporting fish, but when of considerable size (and it often reaches a weight of 8 Ibor more) it is a splendid fighter and stronger than almost any fish that swims. Its life history has long been disputed, but it is now accepted that it breeds in the sea and ascends rivers in its youth. It is found practically everywhere, and its occurrence in isolated ponds to which it has never been introduced by human agency has given rise to a theory that it travels overland as well as by water. The best baits for eels are worms and small fish, and the best time to use them is at night or in thundery or very wet weather. Sea Angling. Sea angling is attended by almost as many refinements of tackle and method as fresh-water angling. The chief differences are differences of locality and the habits of the fish. To a certain extent sea angling may also be divided into three classes — fishing on the surface with the fly, at mid-water with spinning or other bait, and on the bottom; but the first method is only practicable at certain times and in certain places, and the others, from the great depths that often have to be sounded and the heavy weights that have to be used in searching them, necessitate shorter and stouter rods, larger reels and stronger tackle than fresh-water anglers employ. Also, of course, the sea-fisherman is liable to come into conflict with very large fish occasionally. In British waters the monster usually takes the form of a skate or halibut. A specimen of the former weighing 194 Ib has been landed off the Irish coast with rod and line in recent years. In American waters there is a much greater opportunity of catching fish of this calibre. Great Came Fishes. — There are several giants of the sea which are regularly pursued by American anglers, chief among them being the tarpon (Tarpon allanticus) and the tuna or tunny (Thunnus thynnus), which have been taken on rod and line up to 223 ft and 251 Ib respectively. Jew-fish and black sea-bass of over 400 Ib have been taken on rod and line, and there are many other fine sporting fish of large size which give the angler exciting hours on the reefs of Florida, or the coasts of California, Texas or Mexico. Practically all of them are taken with a fish-bait either live or dead, and used stationary on the bottom or in mid-water trailed behind a boat. British Game Fishes. — On a much smaller scale are the fishes most esteemed in British waters. The bass (Labrax lupus) heads the list as a plucky and rather difficult opponent. A fish of 10 Ib is a large one, but fifteen-pounders have been taken. Small or " school " bass up to 3 Ib or 4 Ib may sometimes be caught with the fly (generally a roughly constructed thing with big wings), and when they are really taking the sport is magnificent. In some few localities it is possible to cast for them from rocks with a salmon rod, but usually a boat is required. In other places bass may be caught from the shore with fish bait used on the bottom in quite shallow water. They may again sometimes be caught in mid- water, and in fact there are few methods and few lures employed in sea angling which will not account for them at times. The pollack (Gadus pollachius) and coal-fish (Gadus wrens) come next in esteem. Both in some places reach a weight of 20 Ib or more, and both when young will take a fly. Usually, however, the best sport is obtained by trailing some spinning-bait, such as an artificial or natural sand-eel, behind a boat. Sometimes, and especially for pollack, the bait must be kept near the bottom and heavy weights on the line are necessary; the coal-fish are more prone to come to the surface for feeding. The larger grey mullet (Mugil capita) is a great favourite with many anglers, as it is extremely difficult to hook, and when hooked fights strongly. Fishing for mullet is more akin to fresh-water fishing than any branch of sea-angling, and indeed can be carried on in almost fresh water, for the fish frequent harbours, estuaries and tidal pools. They can be caught close to the surface, at mid-water and at the bottom, and as a rule vegetable baits, such as boiled macaroni, or rag- worms are found to answer best. Usually ground-baiting is necessary, and the finer the tackle used the greater is the chance of sport. Not a few anglers fish with a float as if for river fish. The fish runs up to about 8 Ib in weight. The cod (Gadus morhua) grows larger and fights less gamely than any of the fish already mentioned. It is generally caught with bait used on the bottom from a boat, but in places codling, or young cod, give some sport to anglers fishing from the shore. The mackerel (Scomber scomber) gives the best sport to a bait, usually a strip of fish skin, trailed behind a boat fairly close to the surface, but it will sometimes feed on the bottom. Mackerel on light tackle are game fighters, though they do not usually much exceed 2 Ib. Whiting and whiting-pout (Gadus merlangus and Gadus luscus) both feed on or near the bottom, do not grow to any great size, and are best sought with fine tackle, usually an arrangement of three or four hooks at intervals above a lead which is called a " pater- noster." If one or more of the hooks are on the bottom the tackle will do for different kinds of flat fish as well, flounders and dabs being the two species most often caught by anglers. The bream (Pagellus centrodontus) is another bottom-feeder which resembles the fresh-water bream both in appearance and habits. It is an early morning or rather a nocturnal fish, and grows to a weight of 3 Ib or 4 Ib. Occasionally it will feed in mid-water or even close to the surface. The conger eel (Conger vulgaris) is another night-feeder, which gives fine sport, as it grows to a great size, and is very powerful. Strong tackle is essential for conger fishing, as so powerful an opponent in the darkness cannot be given any law. The bait must be on or near the bottom. There are, of course, many other fish which come to the angler's rod at times, but the list given is fairly complete as representing the species which are especially sought. Beside them are occasional (in some waters too frequent) captures such as dog-fish and sharks, skates and rays. Many of them run to a great size and give ANGLING— ANGLO-NORMAN pU nty of sport on a rod, though they are not as a rule welcomed. Lastly, it must be mentioned that certain of the Salmonidae, smelts (Osmerus efierlanus), sea-trout, occasionally brown trout, and still more occasionally salmon can be caught in salt water rithcr in sea-lochs or at the mouths of rivers. Smelts are best fished for with tiny hooks tied on fine gut and baited with frag- ments of shrimp, ragworm, and other delicacies. MODERN AUTHORITIES AND REFERENCE Boons.— History and Literature: Prof. A. N. Mayer, Sport with Gun and Rod (New York and Edinburgh), with a chapter on " The Primitive FUh-Hoolc," by Barnct Phillips; Dr R. Munro, Lake Dwellings of Europe (London, 1890). with many illustrations and descriptions of early fish-hooks, Ac.; H. C'holmondclcy Penncll and others. Fishing Gossip (Edin- burgh, 1866), contains a paper on " Fishing and Fish-Hooks of the Earliest Date," by Jonathan Couch; C. D. Badham, Prose , (London. 1854), full of curious lore, relating, however, more to ichthyophagy than angling; The Angler's Note-Book and Naturalist's Record (London, 1st series 1881, 2nd series 1888), edited by T. Satchell, the two volumes containing much valuable matter on angling history, literature, and other topics; R. Blakey, Angling Literature (London, 1856), inaccurate and badly arranged, but containing a good deal of curious matter not to be found else- where; O. Lambert, Angling Literature in England (London, 1881), a good little general survey; J. J. Manlcy, Fish and Fishing (London, 1881), with chapters on fishing literature, &c. ; R. B. Marston, Walton and Some Earlier Writers on Fish and Fishing (London and New York, 1894); Piscatorial Society's Pagers (vol. i. London, 1890), contains a paper on " The Useful and Fine Arts in their Relation to Fish and Fishing," by S. C. Harding; Super Flumina (Anon.; London, 1904), gives passim useful information on fishing literature; T. Westwood and T. Satchell, Bibliotheca Piscatoria (London, 1883) an admirable bibliography of the sport: together with the supplement prepared by R. B. Marston, 1901, it may be considered wonderfully complete. Methods and Practice. — General Fresh-water Fishing : F. Francis, A Booh on Angling (London, 1885), though old, a thoroughly sound text-book, particularly good on salmon fishing; H. C. Pennell and others. Fishing— Salmon and Trout and Pike and Coarse Fish (Bad- minton Library, 3 vols.. London, 1904); John Bickerdyke, The Booh of the All-Round Angler (London, 1900) ; Horace G. Hutchinson and others, Fishing (Country Life Series, 2 vols., London, 1904), contains useful ichthyological notes by G. A. Boulcnger, a chapter on " The Feeding of Salmon in Fresh-Water," by Dr J. Kingston Barton, and a detailed account of the principal salmon rivers of Norway, by C. E. Raddyffe. Salmon and Trout.— Major J. P. Traherne, The Habits of the Salmon (London, 1889); G. M. Kelson. The Salmon Fly (London. 1895), contains instructions on dressing salmon-flies; A. E. Gathorne Hardy, The Salmon (" Fur, Feather and Fin Series," London, 1898) ; Sir H. Maxwell, Bt., Salmon and Sea Trout (Angler's Library, London, 1898); Sir E. Grey, Bt., Fly Fishing (Haddon Hall Library, London and New York, 1899); W. Earl Hodgson, Salmon Fishing (London, 1906), contains a series of coloured plates of salmon flies; Marquis of Granby, The Trout (" Fur, Feather and Fin Series," London, 1898). Wet Fly Fishing: W. C. Stewart, The Practical Angler (London, 1905), a new edition of an old but still valuable work; E. M. Tod, Wet Fly Fishing (London, 1905); W. Earl Hodgson, Trout Fishing (London, 1905), contains a sines of admirable coloured plates pi artificial flies. Dry Fly Fishing: F. M. Halford, Dry-Fly Fishing in Theory and Practice (London, 1902), the standard work on the subject; G. A. B. Dewar, The Book of the Dry Fly (London. 1897). Grayling: T. E. Pritt, The Booh of the Grayling (Leeds, 1888) ; H. A. Roll, Grayling Fishing in South Country Streams (London, 1905). Coarse Fish. — C. H. Wheeley, Coarse Fish (Angler's Library, London, 1897); J- W- Martin, Practical Fishing (London); Float- fishing and Spinning (London, 1885); W. Senior and others, Pike and Perch (" Fur, Feather and Fin Series," London, 1900) ; A. J. Jardine, Pike and Perch (Angler's Library, London, 1808); H. C. Penncll, The Book of the Pike (London, 1884); Grevilfe Fennell, The Booh of the Roach (London, 1884). Sea Fishing.— J. C. Wilcocks, The Sea Fisherman (London, 1884); John Bickerdyke (and others), Sea Fishing (Badminton Library, London, 1895); Practical Letters to Sea Fishers (London. 1902); F. G. Aflalo, Sea Fish (Angler's Library, London, 1897) P. L. Haslope, Practical Sea Fishing (London. 1905). Tackle, Flies. &C.—H. C. Pennell, Modem Improvements in Fishing Tackle (London, 1887); H. P. Wells, Fly Rods and Fly Tackle (New York and London, 1901); A. Ronalds, The Fly-Fisher s Entomology (London, 1883); F. M. Halford, Dry Fly Entomology (London, 1902); Floating Flies and How to Dress them (London 1886); T. E. Pritt, North Country Flies (London, 1886); H. G M'Clclland, How to tie Flies for Trout and Grayling (London. 1905) Capt. J. H. Hale, How to tie Salmon Flies (London, 1892); F. G Aflalo, John Bickerdyke and C. H. Wheeley, How to buy Fishing Tackle (London). Ichthyology. Fisheries, Fish-Culture, fire.— Dr Francis Day, Fishe: of Great Britain and Ireland (2 vols., London, 1889) ; British and Irish Salmonidae (London. 1887) ; Dr A. C. L. C. Comber. Inlrodue- ton to the Study ot rithti (London. 1880); Or 1) S Jordan. A G*t4» to Ike Study of Fishes (2 vol.., New York and London. 1905 •'rancis. Practical Management of Fishtr&i (London, iMt); fi>h Culture (London. 1865); F. M. Halford. Making a Fuhfrj (London. 1902); J. J. ArmUtcad, An Angler's Paradise (Duralne*. 1902); -. Mather. Modern Fish-Culture (New York. 1899); LiviagMonr Stone, Domesticated Trout (Charlestown and London, 1806). Angling Guide Books, Geographical Information, (ft.— Great Britain: The Angler's Diary (London), gives information about most important waters in the British files, and about some foreign waters, published annually ; The Sportsman' l and Tourist i Guide to Scotland (London), a good guide to angling in Scotland, puMirtfd twice a year; Augustus Grimble, The Salmon Ktters of Scotland London. 1900, 4 vols.); The Salmon Rivers of Ireland (London, 1903); The Salmon and Sea Trout Rivers of England and Wales London, 1904, 2 vols.), this fine series give* minute information M to salmon pools, flies, seasons, history, catches, Ac. ; W. M. Gallichan. Fishing in Wales (London, 1903) ; Fishing in Derbyshire (London. 1905); J. Watson, English Lake District Fisheries (London, 1899); C. Wade. Exmoor Streams (London, 1903); G. A. B. Dewar, South Country Trout Streams (London, 1899); " Hi Regan," How Where to Fish in Ireland (London, 1900) ; E. S. Shrubtole, The ' of Lakes (London, 1906), a guide to fishing in County Donegal). Europe: " Palmer Hackle, Hints on Angling (London, 1846), contains " suggestions for angling excursions in France and Hum," but they are too old to DC of much service; W. M. Gallichan. Fishing and Travel in Spain (London. 1905); G. W. Hartley. Wild Sport with Gun, Rifle and Salmon Rod (Edinburgh, 1903). contains a chapter on huchen fishing; Max von dem Borne, Wegweiser fur Angler durch Deutschland, Oesterreich und die Schveiz (Berlin, 1877), a book of good conception and arrangement, and still useful, though out of date in many particulars; Illustrierte Angler-Schult (let deutschen Fischerei Zeitung), Stettin, contains good chapters on the wels and huchen; H. Storck, Der An gels port (Munich, 1898). contains a certain amount of geographical information; E. B. Kennedy, Thirty Seasons in Scandinavia (London, 1904), contains useful information about fishing; General E. F. Burton, Trouting in Norway (London, 1897); Abel Chapman. Wild Norway (London, 1897); F. Sandeman, Angling Travels in Norway (London, 1895). America: C. F. Holder. Bit Game Fishes of the United States (New York, 1903) ; I. A. HenshalT, Bass, Pike, Perch and Pickerel (New York, 1903) ; Dean Sage and others, Salmon and Trout (New York, 1902) ; E. T. D. Chambers, Angler's Guide to Eastern Canada (Quebec, 1899); Rowland Ward, The English Angler in Florida (London. 1898); J. Turner Turner. The Giant Fish of Florida (London, 1903). India: H. S. Thomas, The Rod in India (London, 1897); "Skene Dhu," The Mighty Mahseer (Madras, 1906), contains a chapter on the acclimatization of trout in India and Ceylon. New Zealand: W. H. Spackman, Trout in New Zealand (London, 1894); Capt. Hamilton, Trout Fishing and Sport in Maoriland (Wellington, 1905), contains a valuable section on fishing waters. Fishery Law.—G. C. Oke. A Handy Book of the Fishery Laws (edited by J. W. Willis Band and A. C. M' Bar net, London, 1903)- ANGLO-ISRAELITE THEORY, the contention that the British people in the United Kingdom, its colonies, and the United States, are the racial descendants of the " ten tribes " forming the kingdom of Israel, large numbers of whom were deported by Sargon king of Assyria on the fall of Samaria in 721 B.C. The theory (which is fully set forth in a book called Philo-Israel) rests on premises which are deemed by scholars — both theological and anthropological — to be utterly unsound. ANGLO-NORMAN LITERATURE.— The French language (?.».) came over to England with William the Conqueror. During the whole of the 1 2th century it shared with Latin the distinction of being the literary language of England, and it was in use at the court until the i4th century. It was not until the reign of Henry IV. that English became the native tongue of the kings of England. After the loss of the French provinces, schools for the teaching of French were established in England, among the most celebrated of which we may quote that of Marlborough. The language then underwent certain changes which gradually distinguished it from the French spoken in France; but, except for some graphical characteristics, from which certain rules of pronunciation are to be inferred, the changes to which the language was subjected were the individual modifications of the various authors, so that, while we may still speak of Anglo- Norman writers, an Anglo-Norman language, properly so called, gradually ceased to exist. The prestige enjoyed by the French language, which, in the ifth century, the author of the Manitrc de language calls " Ic plus bel et le plus gracious language ANGLO-NORMAN LITERATURE et plus noble parler, apres latin d'escole, qui soil au monde et de touz genz mieulx pris£e et amee que nul autre (quar Dieux le fist si douce et amiable principalement a 1'oneur et loenge de luy mestnes. Et pour ce il peut comparer au parler des angels du del, pour la grand doulceur et biaultee d'icel)," was such that it was not till 1363 that the chancellor opened the parlia- mentary session with an English speech. And although the Hundred Years' War led to a decline in the study of French and the disappearance of Anglo-Norman literature, the French language continued, through some vicissitudes, to be the classical language of the courts of justice until the tyth century. It is still the language of the Channel Islands, though there too it tends more and more to give way before the advance of English. It will be seen from the above that the most flourishing period of Anglo-Norman literature was from the beginning of the i2th century to the end of the first quarter of the i3th. The end of this period is generally said to coincide with the loss of the French provinces to Philip Augustus, but literary and political history do not correspond quite so precisely, and the end of the first period would be more accurately denoted by the appearance of the history of William the Marshal in 1225 (published for the Sociiii de I'histoire de France, by Paul Meyer, 3 vols., 1891-1901). It owes its brilliancy largely to the protection accorded by Henry II. of England to the men of letters of his day. " He could speak French and Latin well, and is said to have known something of every tongue between 'the Bay of Biscay and the Jordan.' He was probably the most highly educated sovereign of his day, and amid all his busy active life he never lost his interest in literature and intellectual discussion; his hands were never empty, they always had either a bow or a book " (Diet, of Nat. Biog.). Wace and Benolt de Sainte-More compiled their histories at his bidding, and it was in his reign that Marie de France composed her poems. An event with which he was closely connected, viz. the murder of Thomas Becket, gave rise to a whole series of writings, some of which are purely Anglo-Norman. In his time appeared the works of B6roul and Thomas respectively, as well as some of the most celebrated of the Anglo-Norman romans d'avenlure. It is important to keep this fact in mind when studying the different works which Anglo-Norman literature has left us. We will examine these works briefly, grouping them into narrative, didactic, hagiographic, lyric, satiric and dramatic literature. Narrative Literature: (a) Epic and Romance. — The French epic came over to England at an early date. We know that the Chanson de Roland was sung at the battle of Hastings, and we possess Anglo-Norman MSS. of a few chansons de geste. The Pelerinage de Charlemagne (Koschwitz, Altfranzosische Bibliothek, 1883) was, for instance, only preserved in an Anglo-Norman manuscript of the British Museum (now lost), although the author was certainly a Parisian. The oldest manuscript of the Chanson de Roland that we possess is also a manuscript written in England, and amongst the others of less importance we may mention La Chanc.un de Wtilame, the MS. of which has (June 1903) been published in facsimile at Chiswick (cf. Paul Meyer, Romania, xxxii. 597-618). Although the diffusion of epic poetry in England did not actually inspire any new chansons de geste, it developed the taste for this class of literature, and the epic style in which the tales of Horn, of Baton de Hampton, of Guy of Warwick (still unpublished), of Waldef (still unpublished), and of Fulk Fits Warine are treated, is certainly partly due to this circumstance. Although the last of these works has come down to us only in a prose version, it contains unmistakable signs of a previous poetic form, and what we possess is really only a render- ing into prose similar to the transformations undergone by many of the chansons de geste (cf. L. Brandin, Introduction to Fulk Fitz Warine, London, 1904). The interinfluence of French and English literature can be studied in the Breton romances and the romans d'aventure even better than in the epic poetry of the period. The Lay of Orpheus is known to us only through an English imitation; the Lai du cor was composed by Robert Biket, an Anglo-Norman poet of the izth century (Wulfi, Lund, 1888). The lais of Marie de France were written in England, and the greater number of the romances composing the matiere de Bretagne seem to have passed from England to France through the medium of Anglo-Norman. The legends of Merlin and Arthur, collected in the Historia Regum Britanniae by Geoffrey of Monmouth (f 1154), passed into French literature, bearing the character which the bishop of St Asaph had stamped upon them. Chretien de Troye's Perceval (c. 1175) is doubtless based on an Anglo-Norman poem. Robert de Boron (c. 1215) took the subject of his Merlin (published by G. Paris and J. Ulrich, 1886, 2 vols., Societi des Anciens Textes) from Geoffrey of Monmouth. Finally, the most celebrated love-legend of the middle ages, and one of the most beautiful inventions of world-literature, the story of Tristan and Iseult, tempted two authors, Beroul and Thomas, the first of whom is probably, and the second certainly, Anglo-Norman (see ARTHURIAN LEGEND; GRAIL, THE HOLY; TRISTAN). One Folie Tristan was composed in England in the last years of the i2th century. (For all these questions see Soc. des Anc. Textes, Muret's ed. 1903; Bedier's ed. 1902-1005). Less fascinating than the story of Tristan and Iseult, but nevertheless of considerable interest, are the two romans d'aventure of Hugh of Rutland, Ipomedon (published by Kolbing and Koschwitz, Breslau, 1889) and Protesilaus (still unpublished) written about 1185. The first relates the adven- tures of a knight who married the young duchess of Calabria, niece of King Meleager of Sicily, but was loved by Medea, the king's wife. The second poem is the sequel to Ipomedon, and deals with the wars and subsequent reconciliation between Ipomedon's sons, Daunus, the elder, lord of Apulia, and Prote- silaus. the younger, lord of Calabria. Protesilaus defeats Daunus, who had expelled him from Calabria. He saves his brother's life, is reinvested with the dukedom of Calabria, and, after the death of Daunus, succeeds to Apulia. He subsequently marries Medea, King Meleager's widow, who had helped him to seize Apulia, having transferred her affection for Ipomedon to his younger son (cf. Ward, Cat. of Rom., i. 728). To these two romances by an Anglo-Norman author, Amadas et Idoine, of which we only possess a continental version, is to be added. Gaston Paris has proved indeed that the original was composed in England in the I2th century (An English Miscellany presented to Dr Furnivall in Honour of his Seventy-fifth Birthday, Oxford, 1901, 386-394). The Anglo-Norman poem on the Life of Richard Cceur de Lion is lost, and an English version only has been pre- served. About 1250 Eustace of Kent introduced into England the roman d'Alexandre in his Roman de toule chevalerie, many passages of which have been imitated in one of the oldest English poems on Alexander, namely, King Alisaunder (P. Meyer, Alexandre le grand, Paris, 1886, ii. 273, and Weber, Metrical Romances, Edinburgh). (ft) Fableaux, Fables and Religious Tales. — In spite of the incontestable popularity enjoyed by this class of literature, we have only some half-dozen fableaux written in England, viz. Le chevalier a la corbeille, Le chevalier qui faisait parler les muets, Le chevalier, sa dame et un clerc, Les trois dames, La gageure, Le pretre d' Alison, La bourgeoise d'Orleans (Bedier, Les Fabliaux, 1895). As to fables, one of the most popular collections in the middle ages was that written by Marie de France, which she claimed to have translated from King Alfred. In the C antes moralists, written by Nicole Bozon shortly before 1320 (Soc. Anc. Textes, 1889), a few fables bear a strong resemblance to those of Marie de France. The religious tales deal mostly with the Mary Legends, and have been handed down to us in three collections: (i.) The Adgar's collection. Most of these were translated from William of Malmesbury (fii43?) by Adgar in the i2th century (" Adgar's Marien-Legenden," Altfr. Biblioth. ix.; J. A. Herbert, Rom. xxxii. 394). (ii.) The collection of Everard of Gateley, a monk of St Edmund at Bury, who wrote c. 1250 three Mary Legends (Rom. xxix. 27). (iii.) An anonymous collection of sixty Mary Legends composed c. 1250 (Brit. Museum Old Roy. 20 B, xiv.), some of which have been published in Suchier's Bibliotheca Normannica; in the Altf. Bibl. See also Mussafia, " Studien zu den mittelalterlichen ANGLO-NORMAN LITERATURE 33 Mtricn Icgciulrn " in Silsungsb. der \\irn Akademie (t. cxiii ., ixv., cxix., cxxiii.. cxxix.). Another set of religious and moralizing talcs is to be found in Chardri's Set dormant and Josaphal. c. 1216 (Koch, Alifr. Bibl., 1880; G. Paris, Potmes el Ufendes du moyen Age). (<•) History. — Of far greater importance, however, are the works which constitute Anglo-Norman historiography. The first Anglo-Norman historiographer is Geoffrey Gaimar, who unite his Eslarie des Angles (between 1147 and 1151) for Dame Constance, wife of Robert FiU-Gislebert (The Anglo-Norman Metrical Chronicle, Hardy and Martin, i. ii., London,i888). This history comprised a first part (now lost), which was merely a translation of Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historic regumBritanniae, preceded by a history of the Trojan War, and a second part « huh carries us as far as the death of William Rufus. For this second part he has consulted historical documents, but he stops at the year 1087, just when he has reached the period about which he might have been able to give us some first-hand infor- mation. Similarly, Wace in his Roman de Ron el des dues de Normandie (ed. Andresen, Heilbronn, 1877-1879, 2 vols.), written 1 160-1174, stops at the battle of Tinchcbray in 1107 just before the period for which he would have been so useful. His Brut or Cestf des Bretons (Le Roux de Lincy, 1836-1838, 2 vols.), written in 1 1 55, is merely a translation of Geoffrey of Monmouth. " Wace," says Gaston Paris, speaking of the Roman de Rou, " traduit en les abrdgeant des historiens latins que nous posse - an«la. Novo Redondo and Egito are small ports between Loanda and Benguella. Port Alexander is in the district of Moesamedes and S. of the town of that name. In the interior Humpata, about 95 m. from MoMamede*, is the chief centre of the Boer settlers; otherwise there are none but native towns containing from 1000 to 3000 inhabitants and often enclosed by a ring of sycamore trees. Ambaca and Malanjc are the chief places in the fertile agricultural district of the middle Kwanza, S.E. of Loanda, with which they are in railway communication. Sao Salvador (pop. 1500) is the name given by the Portuguese to Bonza Congo, the chief town of the " kingdom of Congo." It stands 1840 ft. above sea-level and is about 160 m. inland and 100 S.E. of the river port of Noki, in 6° 1 5' S. Of the cathedral and other stone buildings erected in the i6th century, there exist but scanty ruins. The city walls were destroyed in the closing yean of the igth century and the stone used to build government offices. There is a fort, built about 1850, and a small military force is at the disposal of the Portuguese resident. Bembe and Encoje are smaller towns in the Congo district south of Sao Salvador. Bihe, the capital of the plateau district of the same name forming the hinterland of Benguella, is a large caravan centre. Kangomba, the residence of the king of Bihe, is a large town. Caconda is in the hill country S.E. of Benguella. Agriculture and Trade. — Angola is rich in both agricultural and mineral resources. Amongst the cultivated products are mealies and manioc, the sugar-cane and cotton, coffee and tobacco plants. The chief exports are coffee, rubber, wax, palm kernels and palm-oil, cattle and hides and dried or salt fish. Gold dust, cotton, ivory and gum are also exported. The chief imports are food-stuffs, cotton and woollen goods and hardware. Consider- able quantities of coal come from South Wales. Oxen, intro- duced from Europe and from South Africa, flourish. There are sugar factories, where rum is also distilled and a few other manufactures, but the prosperity of the province depends on the " jungle " products obtained through the natives and from the plantations owned by Portuguese and worked by indentured labour, the labourers being generally " recruited " from the far interior. The trade of the province, which had grown from about £800,000 in 1870 to about £3,000,000 in 1005, is largely with Portugal and in Portuguese bottoms. Between 1893 and 1904 the percentage of Portuguese as compared with foreign goods entering the province increased from 43 to 201 %, a result due to the preferential duties in force. The minerals found include thick beds of copper at Bembe, and deposits on the M'Brije and the Cuvo and in various places in the southern part of the province; iron at Ociras (on the Lucalla affluent of the Kwanza) and in Bailundo; petroleum and asphalt in Dande and Quinzao; gold in Lombije and Cassinga; and mineral salt in Quissama. The native black- smiths are held in great repute. Communications. — There is a regular steamship communication between Portugal, England and Germany, and Loanda, which port is within sixteen days' steam of Lisbon. There is also a regular service between Cape Town, Lobito and Lisbon and Southampton. The Portuguese line is subsidized by the govern- ment. The railway from Loanda to Ambaca and Malanje is known as the Royal Trans-African railway. It is of metre gauge, was begun in 1887 and is some 300 m. long. It was in- tended to carry the line across the continent to Mozambique, but when the line reached Ambaca (225 m.) in 1894 that scheme was abandoned. The railway had created a record in being the most expensive built in tropical Africa — £8942 per mile. A railway from Lobito Bay, 25 m. N. of Benguella, begun in 1904, runs towards the Congo-Rhodesia frontier. It is of standard African gauge (3 ft. 6 in.) and is worked by an English company. It is intended to serve the Katanga copper mines. Besides these two main railways, there are other short lines linking the seaports to their hinterland. Apart from the railways. ANGORA communication is by ancient caravan routes and by ox-wagon tracks in the southern district. Riding-oxen are also used. The province is well supplied with telegraphic communication and is connected with Europe by submarine cables. Government and Revenue. — The administration of the province is carried on under a governor-general, resident at Loanda, who acts under the direction of the ministry of the colonies at Lisbon. At the head of each district is a local governor. Legislative powers, save those delegated to the governor-general, are exercised by the home government. Revenue is raised chiefly from customs, excise duties and direct taxation. The revenue (in 1904-1005 about £350,000) is generally insufficient to meet expenditure (in 1004-1905 over £490,000) — the balance being met by a grant from the mother country. Part of the extra expenditure is, however, on railways and other reproductive works. History. — The Portuguese established themselves on the west coast of Africa towards the close of the i sth century. The river Congo was discovered by Diogo Cam or Cio in 1482. He erected a stone pillar at the mouth of the river, which accordingly took the title of Rio de Padrao, and established friendly relations with the natives, who reported that the country was subject to a great monarch, Mwani Congo or lord of Congo, resident at Bonza Congo. The Portuguese were not long in making them- selves influential in the country. Goncalo de Sousa was despatched on a formal embassy in 1490; and the first mis- sionaries entered the country in his train. The king was soon afterwards baptized and Christianity was nominally established as the national religion. In 1534 a cathedral was founded at Bonza Congo (renamed S5o Salvador), and in 1560 the Jesuits arrived with Paulo Diaz de Novaes. Of the prosperity of the country the Portuguese have left the most glowing and indeed incredible accounts. It was, however, about this time ravaged by cannibal invaders (Bangala) from the interior, and Portuguese influence gradually declined. The attention of the Portuguese was, moreover, now turned more particularly to the southern districts of Angola. In 1627 the bishop's seat was removed to Sao Paulo de Loanda and Sio Salvador declined in importance. In the i8th century, in spite of hindrances from Holland and France, steps were taken towards re-establishing Portuguese authority in the northern regions; in 1758 a settlement was formed at Encoje; from 1784 to 1789 the Portuguese carried on a war against the natives of Mussolo (the district immediately south of Ambriz); in 1791 they built a fort at Quincollo on the Loje, and for a time they worked the mines of Bembe. Until, however, the " scramble for Africa" began in 1884, they possessed no fort or settlement on the coast to the north of Ambriz, which was first occupied in 1855. At S3.O Salvador, however, the Portuguese continued to exercise influence. The last of the native princes who had real authority was a potentate known as Dom Pedro V. He was placed on the throne in 1855 with the help of a Portuguese force, and reigned over thirty years. In 1888 a Portuguese resident was stationed at Salvador, and the kings of Congo became pensioners of the government. Angola proper, and the whole coast-line of what now con- stitutes the province of that name, was discovered by Diogo Cam during 1482 and the three following years. The first governor sent to Angola was Paulo Diaz, a grandson of Bartholomew Diaz, who reduced to submission the region south of the Kwanza nearly as far as Benguella. The city of Loanda was founded in 1576, Benguella in 1617. From that date the sovereignty of Portugal over the coast-line, from its present southern limit as far north as Ambriz (7° 50' S.) has been undisputed save between 1640 and 1648, during which time the Dutch attempted to expel the Portuguese and held possession of the ports. Whilst the economic development of the country was not entirely neglected and many useful food products were introduced, the prosperity of the province was very largely dependent on the slave trade with Brazil, which was not legally abolished until 1830 and in fact continued for many years subsequently. In 1884 Great Britain, which up to that time had steadily refused to acknowledge that Portugal possessed territorial rights north of Ambriz, concluded a treaty recognizing Portuguese sovereignty over both banks of the lower Congo; but the treaty, meeting with opposition in England and Germany, was not ratified. Agreements concluded with the Congo Free State, Germany and France in 1885-1886 (modified in details by subsequent arrangements) fixed the limits of the province, except in the S.E., where the frontier between Barotseland (N.W. Rhodesia) and Angola was determined by an Anglo-Portuguess agreement of 1891 and the arbitration award of the king of Italy in 1905 (see AFRICA: History). Up to the end of the igth century the hold of Portugal over the interior of the province was slight, though its influence extended to the Congo and Zambezi basins. The abolition of the external slave trade proved very injurious to the trade of the seaports, but from 1860 onward the agricultural resources of the country were developed with increasing energy, a work in which Brazilian merchants took the lead. After the definite partition of Africa among the European powers, Portugal applied herself with some seriousness to exploit Angola and her other African possessions. Nevertheless, in comparison with its natural wealth the development of the country has been slow. Slavery and the slave trade continued to flourish in the interior in the early years of the 2oth century, despite the prohibitions of the Portuguese government. The extension of authority over the inland tribes proceeded very slowly and was not accomplished without occasional reverses. Thus in September 1904 a Portu- guese column lost over 300 men killed, including 1 14 Europeans, in an encounter with the Kunahamas on the Kunene, not far from the German frontier. The Kunahamas are a wild, raiding tribe and were probably largely influenced by the revolt of their southern neighbours, the Hereros, against the Germans. In 1905 and again in 1907 there was renewed fighting in the same region. AUTHORITIES. — E. de Vasconcellos, As Colonias Portuguesas (Lisbon, 1896-1897); J. J. Monteiro, Angola and the River Congo (2 vols. London, 1875) ; Viscount de Paiva Manso, Historia do Congo . . . . (Documentos) (Lisbon, 1877); A Report of the Kingdom of Congo (London, 1881), an English translation, with notes by Mar- Erite Hutchinson, of Filippo Pigafetta's Relatione del Rearne di >ngo (Rome, 1591), a book founded on the statements and writings of Duarte Lopez; Rev. Thos. Lewis, " The Ancient Kingdom of Kongo " in Geographical Journal, vol. xix. and vol. xxxi. (London, 1 002 and 1908); The Strange Adventures of Andrew Battell of Leigh in Angola and the Adjoining Regions (London, 1901), a volume of the Hakluyt Society, edited by E. G. Ravenstein, who gives in appendices the history of the country from its discovery to the end of the 1 7th century; J. C. Feo Cardozo, Memorias contendo .... a historia dos governadores e capitaens generaes de Angola, desde 1575 ate 1825 (Paris, 1825) ; H. W. Nevinson, A Modern Slavery (London, 1906), an examination of the system of indentured labour and its recruitment; Ornithologie d' Angola, by J. V. Barboza du Bocage (Lisbon, 1881); " Geologic des Colonies portugaises en Afrique," by P. Choffat, in Com. d. service geol. du Portugal. See also the annual reports on the Trade of Angola, issued by the British Foreign Office. ANGORA, or ENGURI. (i) A city of Turkey (anc. Ancyra) in Asia, capital of the vilayet of the same name, situated upon a steep, rocky hill, which rises 500 ft. above the plain, on the left bank of the Enguri Su, a tributary of the Sakaria(Sangarius), about 22om. E.S.E. of Constantinople. The hill is crowned by the ruins of the old citadel, which add to the picturesqueness of the view; but the town is not well built, its streets being narrow and many of its houses constructed of sun-dried mud bricks; there are, however, many fine remains of Graeco-Roman and Byzantine architecture, the most remarkable being the temple of Rome and Augustus, on the walls of which is the famous Monumenlum A ncyranum (see ANCYRA). Ancyra was the centre of the Tectosages, one of the three Gaulish tribes which settled in Galatia in the 3rd century B.C., and became the capital of the Roman province of Galatia when it was formally constituted in 25 B.C. During the Byzan- tine period, throughout which it occupied a position of great importance, it was captured by Persians and Arabs; then it fell into the hands of the Seljuk Turks, was held for eighteen years by the Latin Crusaders, and finally passed to the Ottoman Turks in 1360. In 1402 a great battle was fought in the vicinity of Angora, in which the Turkish sultan Bayezid was defeated and made prisoner by the Tatar conqueror Timur. In 1415 it was recovered by the Turks under Mahommed I., and since that period has ANGOULEMfi belonged to the Ottoman empire. In 1832 it WM taken by the Egyptians under Ibrahim Pasha. Angora is connected with Constantinople by railway, and exports wool, mohair, grain and yellow berries. Mohair doth is manufactured, and the town is noted for its honey and fruit. From 1639 to 1768 there was an agency of the Levant Company here; there is now a British consul. Pop. estimated at 28,000 (Moslems, 18,000; Christians, largely Roman Catholic Armenians, about 0400; Jews, 400). (3) A Turkish vilayet in north-central Asia Minor, which includes most of the ancient Galatia. It is an agricultural country, depending for its prosperity on its grain, wool (average annual export, 4,400,000 tb), and the mohair obtained from the beautiful Angora goats (average annual clip, 3,300,000 Ib). The fineness of the hair may perhaps be ascribed to some peculiarity in the atmosphere, for it is remarkable that the cats, dogs and other animals of the country are to a certain extent affected in the same way, and that they all lose much of their distinctive beauty when taken from their native districts. The only im- portant industry is carpet-weaving at Kir-sheher and Kaisarieh. There are mines of silver, copper, lignite and salt, and many hot springs, including some of great repute medicinally. Average annual exports 1806-1808, £920,762; imports, £411,836. Pop. about 000,000 (Moslems, 765,000 to 800,000, the rest being Christians, with a few hundred Jews). (J. G. C. A.) See C. Ritter, Erdkunde ton Alien (vol. xviii., 1837-1839); V. Cuinet, La Turquie d'Asit, t. i. (1891); Murray's Handbook to Asia Minor (1895); and other works mentioned under ANCYRA. ANGOULBMB, CHARLES DE VALOIS, DUKE OF (1573-1650), the natural son of Charles IX. of France and Marie Touchet, was born on the 28th of April 1573,31 the castle of Fayet in Dauphine. His father, dying in the following year, commended him to the care and favour of his brother and successor, Henry III., who faithfully fulfilled the charge. His mother married Francois de Balzac, marquis d'Entragues, and one of her daughters, Henriette, marchioness of Verneuil, afterwards became the mistress of Henry IV. Charles of Valois, was carefully educated, and was destined for the order of Malta. At the early age of sixteen he attained one of the highest dignities of the order, being made grand prior of France. Shortly after he came into possession of large estates left by Catherine de' Medici, from one of which he took his title of count of Auverg^ne. In 1591 he obtained a dispensation from the vows of the order of Malta, and married Charlotte, daughter of Henry, Marshal d'Amville, afterwards duke of Montmorency. In 1 589 Henry III. was assassinated, but on his deathbed he commended Charles to the good-will of his successor Henry IV. By that monarch he was made colonel of horse, and in that capacity served in the campaigns during the early part of the reign. But the connexion between the king and the marchioness of Verneuil appears to have been very displeasing to Auvergne, and in 1601 he engaged in the conspiracy formed by the dukes of Savoy, Biron and Bouillon, one of the objects of which was to force Henry to repudiate his wife and marry the marchioness. The conspiracy was discovered; Biron and Auvergne were arrested and Biron was executed. Auvergne after a few months' imprisonment was released, chiefly through the influence of his half-sister, his aunt, the duchess of Angoule1 me and his father-in-law. He then entered into fresh intrigues with the court of Spain, acting in concert with the marchioness of Verneuil and her father d'Entragues. In 1604 d'Entragues and he were arrested and condemned to death; at the same time the marchioness was condemned to perpetual imprisonment in a convent. She easily obtained pardon, and the sentence of death against the other two was commuted into perpetual imprisonment. Auvergne remained in the Bastille for eleven years, from 1605 to 1616. A decree of the parlement (1606), obtained by Marguerite de Valois, deprived him of nearly all his possessions, including Auvergne, though he still retained the title. In 1616 he was released, was restored to his rank of colonel-general of horse, and despatched against one of the disaffected nobles, the duke of Longuc ville, who had taken Pe>onne. Next year he commanded the forces collected in the lie de France, and obtained some successes. In 1619 he received by bequest, ratified in 1620 by royal grant, the duchy of Angoule'me. Soon after he was engaged on an important embassy to Germany, the result of which was the treaty of Ulm, signed July 1620. In 1627 he com minded the large forces assembled at the siege of La Rochelle; and some yean after in 1635, during the Thirty Years' War, be was general of the French army in Lorraine. In 1636 he was made lieutenant- general of the army. He appears to have retired from public life shortly after the death of Richelieu in 1643. His first wife died in 1636, and in 1644 he married Francoisc de Narbonne, daughter of Charles, baron of Mareuil. She bad no children and survived her husband until 1713. Angoule'me himself died on the 24th of September 1650. By his first wife he had three children: Henri, who became insane; Louis Emmanuel, who succeeded his father as duke of Angoule'me and was colonel-general of light cavalry and governor of Provence; and Francois, who died in 1622. The duke was the author of the following works: — (i)Mhtunrei. from the assassination of Henri III. to the battle of Arque* (15*97 1 J>93). published at Paris by Boneau, and reprinted by Buchon in his Choix de chroniques (1836) and by Petitot in his Uemoirei (1st series, vol. xliv.) ; (2) Lei Harangues, prononcfs en aisemblee de ttU. lei princes protestants d'AUemagne, par Monseigneur le due d' Angoulttne (1620); (3) a translation of a Spanish work by Diego de Torre*. To him has also been ascribed the work, La tentroJe etfidete RUation de lout ce gut s'eil passi en I'isle de Ri, envoyfe par U roi a la royne sa mire (Paris, 1627). ANGOULEME. a city of south-western France, capital of the department of Charente, 83 m. N.N.E. of Bordeaux on the railway between Bordeaux and Poitiers. Pop. (1006) 30,040. The town proper occupies an elevated promontory, washed on the north by the Charente and on the south and west by the Anguienne, a small tributary of that river. The more important of the suburbs lie towards the east, where the promontory joins the main plateau, of which it forms the north-western extremity. The main line of the Orleans railway passes through a tunnel beneath the town. In place of its ancient fortifications Angou- le'me is encircled by boulevards known as the Reimports, from which fine views may be obtained in all directions. Within the town the streets are often dark and narrow, and, apart from the cathedral and the hotol de ville, the architecture is of little interest. The cathedral of St Pierre (see CATHEDRAL), a church in the Byzantine- Romanesque style, dates from the nth and 1 2th centuries, but has undergone frequent restoration, and was partly rebuilt in the latter half of the iqth century by the architect Paul Abadie. The facade, flanked by two towers with cupolas, is decorated with arcades filled in with statuary and sculpture, the whole representing the Lost Judgment. The crossing is surmounted by a dome, and the extremity of the north transept by a fine square tower over 160 ft. high. The hotel de ville, also by Abadie, is a handsome modern structure, but preserves two towers of the chateau of the counts of Angou- le'me, on the site of which it is built. It contains museums of paintings and archaeology. Angoule'me is the seat of a bishop, a prefect, and a court of assizes. Its public institutions include tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a council of trade- arbitrators, a chamber of commerce and a branch of the Bank of France. It also has a Iyc6e, training-colleges, a school of artillery, a library and several learned societies. It is a centre of the paper-making industry, with which the town has been connected since the i-jth century. Most of the mills are situated on the banks of the watercourses in the neighbourhood of the town. The subsidiary industries, such as the manufacture of machinery and wire fabric, are of considerable importance. Iron and copper founding, brewing, tanning, and the manufacture of gunpowder, confectionery, heavy iron goods, gloves, boots and shoes and cotton goods are also carried on. Commerce is carried on in wine, brandy and building-stone. Angoule'me (Iciilisma) was taken by Clovis from the Visigoths in 507, and plundered by the Normans in the 9th century. In 1360 it was surrendered by the peace of Bretigny to the English; they were, however, expelled in 1373 by the troops of Charles V., who granted the town numerous privileges. It suffered much during the Wars of Religion, especially in 1568 after its capture by the Protestants under Coligny. ANGOUMOIS— ANGUILLA The countship of Angouleme dated from the gth century, the most important of the early counts being William Taillefer, whose descendants held the title till the end of the 1 2th century. Withdrawn from them on more than one occasion by Richard Coeur-de-Lion, it passed to King John of England on his marriage with Isabel, daughter of Count Adhemar, and by her subsequent marriage in 1220 to Hugh X. passed to the Lusignan family, counts of Marche. On the death of Hugh XIII. in 1302 without issue, his possessions passed to the crown. In 1394 the countship came to the house of Orleans, a member of which, Francis I., became king of France in 1315 and raised it to the rank of duchy in favour of his mother Louise of Savoy. The duchy afterwards changed hands several times, one of its holders being Charles of Valois, natural son of Charles IX. The last duke was Louis- Antoine, eldest son of Charles X., who died in 1844. See A. F. Li^vre, Angoulime: histoire, institutions et monuments (Angoule'me, 1885). ANGOUMOIS, an old province of France, nearly corre- sponding to-day to the department of Charente. Its capital was Angouleme. See Essai d'une bibliothtque historique de fAngoumois, by E. Castaigne (1845). ANGRA, or ANGRA DO HEROISMO (" Bay of Heroism," a name given it in 1829, to commemorate its successful defence against the Miguelist party), the former capital of the Portuguese archipelago of the Azores, and chief town of an administrative district, comprising the islands of Terceira, St George and Graciosa. Pop. (1000) 10,788. Angra is built on the south coast of Terceira in 38° 38' N. and in 27° 13' W. It is the headquarters of a military command, and the residence of a Roman Catholic bishop; its principal buildings are the cathedral, military college, arsenal and observatory. The harbour, now of little commercial or strategic importance, but formerly a cele- brated naval station, is sheltered on the west and south-west by the promontory of Mt. Brazil; but it is inferior to the neighbour- ing ports of Ponta Delgada and Horta. The foreign trade is not large, and consists chiefly in the exportation of pineapples and other fruit. Angra served as a refuge for Queen Maria II. of Portugal from 1830 to 1833. ANGRA PEQUENA, a bay in German South-West Africa, in 26° 38' S., 15° E., discovered by Bartholomew Diaz in 1487. F. A. E. Liideritz, of Bremen, established a trading station here in 1883, and his agent concluded treaties with the neighbouring chiefs, who ceded large tracts of country to the newcomers. On the 24th of April 1884 Liideritz transferred his rights to the German imperial government, and on the following 7th of August a German protectorate over the district was proclaimed. (See AFRICA, § 5, and GERMAN SOUTH-WEST APRICA.) Angra Pequena has been renamed by the Germans Liideritz Bay, and the adjacent country is sometimes called Liideritzland. The harbour is poor. At the head of the bay is a small town, whence a railway, begun in 1006, runs east in the direction of Bechuana- land. The surrounding country for many miles is absolute desert, except after rare but terrible thunderstorms, when the dry bed of the Little Fish river is suddenly filled with a turbulent stream, the water finding its way into the bay. The islands off the coast of Angra Pequena, together with others north and south, were annexed to Great Britain in 1867 and added to Cape Colony in 1874. Seal Island and Penguin Island are in the bay, Ichaboe, Mercury, and Hollam's Bird islands are to the north; Halifax, Long, Possession, Albatross, Pomona, Plumpudding, and Roastbeef islands are to the south. On these islands are guano deposits; the most valuable is on Ichaboe Island. ANGSTROM, ANDERS JONAS (1814-1874), Swedish physicist, was born on the i3th of August 1814 at Logdo, Medelpad, Sweden. He was educated at Upsala University, where in 1839 he became privat docent in physics. In 1842 he went to Stockholm Observatory in order to gain experience in practical astronomical work, and in the following year he became observer at Upsala Observatory. Becoming interested in terrestrial magnetism he made many observations of magnetic intensity and declination in various parts of Sweden, and was charged by the Stockholm Academy of Sciences with the task, not completed till shortly before his death, of working out the magnetic data obtained by the Swedish frigate " Eugenie " on her voyage round the world in 1851-1853. In 1858 he succeeded Adolph Ferdinand Svanberg (1806-1857) in the chair of physics at Upsala, and there he died on the 2ist of June 1874. His most important work was concerned with the conduction of heat and with spectroscopy. In his optical researches, Optiska Undersok- ningar, presented to the Stockholm Academy in 1853, he not only pointed out that the electric spark yields two superposed spectra, one from the metal of the electrode and the other from the gas in which it passes, but deduced from Euler's theory of resonance that an incandescent gas emits luminous rays of the same refrangibility as those which it can absorb. This statement, as Sir E. Sabine remarked when awarding him the Rumford medal of the Royal Society in 1872, contains a fundamental principle of spectrum analysis, and though for a number of years it was overlooked it entitles him to rank as one of the founders of spectroscopy. From 1861 onwards he paid special attention to the solar spectrum. He announced the existence of hydrogen, among other elements, in the sun's atmosphere in 1862, and in 1868 published his great map of the normal solar spectrum which long remained authoritative in questions of wave-length, although his measurements were inexact to the extent of one part in 7000 or 8000 owing to the metre which he used as his standard having been slightly too short. He was the first, in 1867, to examine the spectrum of the aurora borealis, and detected and measured the characteristic bright line in its yellow green region; but he was mistaken in supposing that this same line, which is often called by his name, is also to be seen in the zodiacal light. His son, KNUT JOHAN ANGSTROM, was born at Upsala on the i2th of January 1857, and studied at the university of that town from 1877 to 1884. After spending a short time in Strassburg he was appointed lecturer in physics at Stockholm University in 1885, but in 1891 returned to Upsala, where in 1896 he became professor of physics. He especially devoted himself to investiga- tions of the radiation of heat from the sun and its absorption by the earth's atmosphere, and to that end devised various delicate methods and instruments, including his electric compensation pyrheliometer, invented in 1893, and apparatus for obtaining a photographic representation of the infra-red spectrum (1895). ANGUIER, FRANCOIS (c. 1604-1669), and MICHEL (1612- 1686), French sculptors, were two brothers, natives of Eu in Normandy. Their apprenticeship was served in the studio of Simon Guillain. The chief works of Francois are the monument to Cardinal de Berulle, founder of the Carmelite order, in the chapel of the oratory at Paris, of which all but the bust has been destroyed, and the mausoleum of Henri II., last due de Mont- morency, at Moulins. To Michel are due the sculptures of the triumphal arch at the Porte St Denis, begun in 1674, to serve as a memorial for the conquests of Louis XIV. A marble group of the Nativity in the church of Val de Grace was reckoned his masterpiece. From 1662 to 1667 he directed the progress of the sculpture and decoration in this church, and it was he who superintended the decoration of the apartments of Anne of Austria in the old Louvre. F. Fouquet also employed him for his chateau in Vaux. See Henri Stein, LesfrZres Anguier (1889), with catalogue of works, and many references to original sources; Armand Sanson, Deux sculpteurs Normands: les freres Anguier (1889). ANGUILLA, or SNAKE, a small island in the British Indies, part of the presidency of St Kitts-Nevis, in the colony of the Leeward Islands. Pop. (1901) 3890, mostly negroes. It is situated in 18° 12' N. and 63° 5' W., about 60 m. N.W. of St Kitts, is 1 6 m. long and has an area of 35 sq. m. The destruction of trees by charcoal-burners has resulted in the almost complete deforestation of the island. Nearly all the land is in the hands of peasant proprietors, who cultivate sweet potatoes, peas, beans, corn, &c., and rear sheep and goats. Cattle, phosphate of lime and salt, manufactured from a lake in the interior, are the principal ANGULATE— ANGUS 43 exports, the market for these bring the neighbouring island of St Thomas. ANGULATE (Lat. antulus, an angle), shaped with comers or angles; an adjective used in botany and zoology for the shape of stems, leaves and wings. ANGUS, EARLS OP. Angus was one of the seven original earldoms of the Pictish kingdom of Scotland, said to have been occupied by seven brothers of whom Angus was the eldest. The Critic line ended with Matilda (fl. 1240), countess of Angus in her own right, who married in 1243 Gilbert de Umfravill and founded the Norman line of three earls, which ended in 1381, the then holder of the title being summoned to the English parlia- ment. Meanwhile John Stewart of Bonkyl, co. Berwick, had been created earl of Angus in a new line. This third creation ended with Margaret Stewart, countess of Angus in her own right, and widow of Thomas, i.uh earl of Mar. By an irregular connexion with William, ist earl of Douglas, who had married Mar's sister, she became the mother of George Douglas, ist earl of Angus (c. 1380-1403), and secured a charter of her estates for her son, to whom in 1389 the title was granted by King Robert II. He was taken prisoner at Homildon Hill and died in England. The 5th earl was his great-grandson. ARCHIBALD DOUGLAS, 5th earl of Angus (c. MSO-C. 1514), the famous " Bell the Cat," was born about 1450 and succeeded his father, George the 4th earl, in 1462 or 1463. In 1481 he was made warden of the east marches, but the next year he joined the league against James III. and his favourite Robert Cochranc at Lauder, where he earned his nickname by offering to bell the cat, i.e. to deal with the latter, beginning the attack upon him by pulling his gold chain off his neck and causing him with others of the king's favourites to be hanged. Subsequently he joined Alexander Stewart, duke of Albany, in league with Edward IV. of England, on the i ith of February 1483, signing the convention at Westminster which acknowledged the overlordship of the English king. In March however they returned, outwardly at least, to their allegiance, and received pardons for their treason. Later Angus was one of the leaders in the rebellion against James in 1487 and 1488, which ended in the latter's death. He was made one of the guardians of the young king James IV. but soon lost influence, being superseded by the Homes and Hepburns, and the wardenship of the marches was given to Alexander Home. Though outwardly on good terms with James, he treacherously made a treaty with Henry VII. about 1489 or 1491, by which he undertook to govern his relations with James according to instructions from England, and to hand over Hermitage Castle, commanding the pass through Liddesdale into Scotland, on the condition of receiving English estates in compensation. In October 1491 he fortified his castle of Tantallon against James, but was obliged to submit and exchange his Liddesdale estate and Hermitage Castle for the lordship of Bothwell. In 1493 he was again in favour, received various grants of lands, and was made chancellor, which office he retained till 1498. In 1501 he was once more in disgrace and confined to Dumbarton Castle. After the disaster at Flodden in 1513, at which he was not present, but at which he lost his two eldest sons, Angus was appointed one of the counsellors of the queen regent. He died at the close of this year, or in 1514. He was married three times, and by bis first wife had four sons and several daughters. His third son, Gavin Douglas, bishop of Dunkeld, is separately noticed. ARCHIBALD DOUGLAS, the 6th earl (c. 1480-1557), son of George, master of Douglas, who was killed at Flodden, succeeded on his grandfather's death. In 1509 he had married Margaret (d. 1513), daughter of Patrick Hepburn, ist earl of Bothwell; and in 1514 he married the queen dowager Margaret of Scotland, widow of James IV., and eldest sister of Henry VIII. By this latter act he stirred up the jealousy of the nobles and the opposi- tion of the French party, and civil war broke out. He was superseded in the government on the arrival of John Stewart, duke of Albany, who was made regent. Angus withdrew to his estates in Forfarshire, while Albany besieged the queen at Stirling and got possession of the royal children; then he joined Margaret after her flight at Morpcth, and on her departure for London returned and made his peace with Albany in 1516. He met her once more at Berwick in June 1517, when Margaret returned to Scotland on Albany's departure in vain hopes of regaining the regency. Meanwhile, during Margaret's absence, Angus had formed a connexion with a daughter of the laird of Traquair. Margaret avenged his neglect of her by refuting to support his claims for power and by secretly trying through Albany to get a divorce. In Edinburgh Angus held his own against the attempts of James Hamilton, ist earl of Arran, to dislodge him. But the return of Albany in 1521, with whom Margaret now sided against her husband, deprived him of power. The regent took the government into his own hands; Angus was charged with high treason in December, and in March 1522 was sent practically a prisoner to France, whence be succeeded in escaping to London in 1524. He returned to Scotland in November with promises of support from Henry VIII., with whom he made a close alliance. Margaret, however, refused to have anything to do with her husband. On the 23rd, therefore, Angus forced his way into Edinburgh, but was fired upon by Margaret and retreated to Tantallon. He now organized a large party of nobles against Margaret with the support of Henry VIII., and in February 1525 they entered Edinburgh and called a parliament. Angus was made a lord of the articles, was included in the council of regency, bore the king's crown on the opening of the session, and with Archbishop Beaton held the chief power. In March he was appointed lieutenant of the marches, and suppressed the disorder and anarchy on the border. In July the guardianship of the king was entrusted to him for a fixed period till the ist of November, but he refused at its close to retire, and advancing to Linlithgow put to flight Margaret and his opponents. He now with his followers engrossed all the power, succeeded in gaining over some of his antagonists, includ- ing Arran and the Hamiltons, and filled the public offices with Douglases, he himself becoming chancellor. " None that time durst strive against a Douglas nor Douglas's man."1 The young king James, now fourteen, was far from content under the tutelage of Angus, but he was closely guarded, and several attempts to effect his liberation were prevented, Angus com- pletely defeating Lennox, who had advanced towards Edinburgh with 10,000 men in August, and subsequently taking Stirling. His successes were consummated by a pacification with Beaton, and in 1527 and 1528 he was busy in restoring order through the country. In the latter year, on the nth of March, Margaret succeeded in obtaining her divorce from Angus, and about the end of the month she and her lover, Henry Stewart, were besieged at Stirling. A few weeks later, however, James suc- ceeded in escaping from Angus's custody, took refuge with Margaret and Arran at Stirling, and immediately proscribed Angus and all the Douglases, forbidding them to come within seven miles of his person. Angus, having fortified himself in Tantallon, was attainted and his lands confiscated. Repeated attempts of James to subdue the fortress failed, and on one occasion Angus captured the royal artillery, but at length it was given up as a condition of the truce between England and Scotland, and in May 1529 Angus took refuge with Henry, obtained a pension and took an oath of allegiance, Henry engaging to make his restoration a condition of peace. Angus had been chiefly guided in his intrigues with England by his brother, Sir George Douglas of Pittcndriech (d. 1552), master of Angus, a far cleverer diplomatist than himself. His life and lands were also declared forfeit, as were those of his uncle, Archibald Douglas of Kilspindie (d. 1535), who had been a friend of James and was known by the nickname of "GrcysteeJ." These took refuge in exile. James avenged himself on such Douglases as lay within his power. Angus's third sister Janet, Lady Glamis, was summoned to answer the charge of com- municating with her brothers, and on her failure to appear her estates were forfeited. In 1537 she was tried for conspiring against the king's life. She was found guilty and burnt on the Castle Hill, Edinburgh, on the 1 7th of July 1537. Her innocence 1 Lindsay of Pitscottie (1814), ii. 314. 44 ANGUSSOLA— ANHALT has been generally assumed, but Tytler (Hist, of Scotland, iv. PP- 433 , 434) considered her guilty. Angus remained in England till 1542, joining in the attacks upon his countrymen on the border, while James refused all demands from Henry VIII. for his restoration, and kept firm to his policy of suppressing and extirpating the Douglas faction. On James V.'s death in 1542 Angus returned to Scotland, with instructions from Henry to accomplish the marriage between Mary and Edward. His forfeiture was rescinded, his estates restored, and he was made a privy councillor and lieutenant-general. In 1543 he negotiated the treaty of peace and marriage, and the same year he himself married Margaret, daughter of Robert, Lord Maxwell. Shortly afterwards strife between Angus and the regent Arran broke out, and in April 1544 Angus was taken prisoner. The same year Lord Hertford's marauding expedition, which did not spare the lands of Angus, made him join the anti-English party. He entered into a bond with Arran and others to maintain their allegiance to Mary, and gave his support to the mission sent to France to offer the latter's hand. In July 1344 he was appointed lieutenant of the south of Scotland, and distinguished himself on the 27th of February 1545 in the victory over the English at Ancrum Moor. He still corresponded with Henry VIII., but nevertheless signed in 1546 the act cancelling the marriage and peace treaty, and on the loth of September commanded the van in the great defeat of Pinkie, when he again won fame. In 1548 the attempt by Lennox and Wharton to capture him and punish him for his duplicity failed, Angus escaping after his defeat to Edinburgh by sea, and Wharton being driven back to Carlisle. Under the regency of Mary of Lorraine his restless and ambitious character and the number of his retainers gave cause for frequent alarms to the government. On the 3ist of August 1547 he resigned his earldom, obtaining a regrant sibi et suis haeredibus masculis et suis assignatis quibuscumque. His career was a long struggle for power and for the interests of his family, to which national considerations were completely subordinate. He died in January 1557. By Margaret Tudor he had Margaret, his only surviving legitimate child, who married Matthew, 4th earl of Lennox, and was mother of Lord Darnley. He was succeeded by his nephew David, son of Sir George Douglas of Pittendriech. ARCHIBALD DOUGLAS, 8th earl, and earl of Morton (1555- 1588), was the son of David, 7th earl. He succeeded to the title and estates in 1558, being brought up by his uncle, the 4th earl of Morton, a Presbyterian. In 1573 he was made a privy councillor and sheriff of Berwick, in 1574 lieutenant-general of Scotland, in 1577 warden of the west marches and steward of Fife, and in 1578 lieutenant-general of the realm. He gave a strong support to Morton during the attack upon the latter, made a vain attempt to rescue him, and was declared guilty of high treason on the 2nd of June 1581. He now entered into correspondence with the English government for an invasion of Scotland to rescue Morton, and on the latter's execution in June went to London, where he was welcomed by Elizabeth. After the raid of Ruthven in 1582 Angus returned to Scotland and was reconciled to James, but soon afterwards the king shook off the control of the earls of Mar and Cowrie, and Angus was again banished from the court. In 1584 he joined the rebellion of Mar and Glamis, but the movement failed, and the insur- gents fled to Berwick. Later they took up their residence at Newcastle, which became a centre of Presbyterianism and of projects against the Scottish government, encouraged by Elizabeth, who regarded the banished lords as friends of the English and antagonists of the French interest. In February 1585 they came to London, and cleared themselves of the accusa- tion of plotting against James's life; a plan was prepared for their restoration and for the overthrow of James Stewart, earl of Arran. In October they invaded Scotland and gained an easy victory over Arran, captured Stirling Castle with the king in November, and secured from James the restoration of their estates and the control of the government. In 1 586 Angus was appointed warden of the marches and lieutenant-general on the border, and performed good services in restoring order; but he was unable to overcome the king's hostility to the establishment of Presbyterian government. In January 1586 he was granted the earldom of Morton with the lands entailed upon him by his uncle. He died on the 4th of August 1 588 . He was succeeded in the earldom by his cousin William, a descendant of the sth earl. (For the Morton title, see MORTON, JAMES DOUGLAS, 4thEARL OF.) WILLIAM DOUGLAS, ioth earl (c. 1554-1611), was the son of William, the gth earl (1533-1591). He studied at St Andrews University and joined the household of the earl of Morton. Subsequently, while visiting the French court, he became a Roman Catholic, and was in consequence, on his return, dis- inherited and placed under restraint. Nevertheless he succeeded to his father's titles and estates in 1591, and though in 1592 he was ^disgraced for his complicity in Lord Bothwell's plot, he was soon liberated and performed useful services as the king's lieutenant in the north of Scotland. In July 1592, however, he was asking for help from Elizabeth in a plot with Erroll and other lords against Sir John Maitland, the chancellor, and protesting his absolute rejection of Spanish offers, while in October he signed the Spanish Blanks (see ERROLL, FRANCIS HAY, 9th EARL OF) and was imprisoned (on the discovery of the treason) in Edinburgh Castle on his return in January 1593. He succeeded on the I3th in escaping by the help of his countess, joining the earls of Huntly and Erroll in the north. They were offered an act of " oblivion " or " abolition " provided they renounced their religion or quitted Scotland. Declining these conditions they were declared traitors and " forfeited." They remained in rebellion, and in July 1594 an attack made by them on Aberdeen roused James's anger. Huntly and Erroll were subdued by James himself in the north, and Angus failed in an attempt upon Edinburgh in concert with the earl of Bothwell. Subsequently in 1597 they all renounced their religion, declared themselves Presbyterians, and were restored to their estates and honours. Angus was again included in the privy council, and in June 1598 was appointed the king's lieutenant in southern Scotland, in which capacity he showed great zeal and conducted the " Raid of Dumfries," as the campaign against the Johnstones was called. Not long afterwards, Angus, offended at the advance- ment of Huntly to a marquisate, recanted, resisted all the argu- ments of the ministers to bring him to a " better mind," and was again excommunicated in 1608. In 1609 he withdrew to France, and died in Paris on the 3rd of March 1611. He was succeeded by his son William, as nth earl of Angus, afterwards ist marquisof Douglas (1580-1660). The title is now held by the dukes of Hamilton. AUTHORITIES. — The Douglas Book, by Sir W. Fraser (1885); History of the House of Douglas and Angus, by D. Hume of Godscroft (1748, legendary in some respects) ; History of the House of Douglas, by Sir H. Maxwell (1902). ANGUSSOLA or ANGUSSCIOLA, SOPHONISBA, Italian portrait painter of the latter half of the i6th century, was born at Cremona about 1535, and died at Palermo in 1626. In 1560, at the invitation of Philip II., she visited the court of Madrid, where her portraits elicited great commendation. Vandyck is said to have declared that he had derived more knowledge of the true principles of his art from her conversation than from any other source. She painted several fine portraits of herself, one of which is at Althorp. A few specimens of her painting are to be seen at Florence and Madrid. She had three sisters, who were also celebrated artists. ANHALT, a duchy of Germany, and a constituent state of the German empire, formed, in 1863, by the amalgamation of the two duchies Anhalt-Dessau-Cothen and Anhalt-Bernburg, and comprising all the various Anhalt territories which were sundered apart in 1603. The country now known as Anhalt consists of two larger portions — Eastern and Western Anhalt, separated by the interposition of a part of Prussian Saxony — and of five enclaves surrounded by Prussian territory, viz. Alsleben, Miihlingen,Dornburg,G6dnitz and Tilkerode-Abberode. The eastern and larger portion of the duchy is enclosed by the Prussian government district of Potsdam (in the Prussian jrovince of Brandenburg), and Magdeburg and Merseburg ^belonging to the Prussian province of Saxony). The western ANHALT 45 or smaller portion (the to-called Upper Duchy or Ballcnstedl) U alto enclosed by the two Utter districts and, (or a distance o( s «• on the wett, by the duchy of Brunswick. The western portion of the territory U undulating and in the extreme south- west, where it forms part of the Kara range, mountainous, the Ramberg peak attaining a height of 1000 ft. From the Hare the country gently shelves down to the Saale; and between this river and the Elbe there lies a fine tract of fertile country. The |x>rtion of the duchy lying east of the Elbe is mostly a flat sandy plain, with extensive pine forests, though interspersed, at intervals, by bog-land and'rich pastures. The Elbe is the chief rivrr, and intersecting the eastern portion of the duchy, from east to west, receives at Rosslau the waters of the Mulde. The navigable Saalc takes a northerly direction through the western |x>rtion of the eastern part of the territory and receives, on the right, the Fuhne and, on the left, the Wipper and the Bode. The climate is on the whole mild, though somewhat inclement in the higher regions to the south-west. The area of the duchy is 006 sq. m., and the population in 1005 amounted to 328,007, a ratio of about 351 to the square mile. The country is divided into the districts of Dessau, Cdthen, Zerbst, Bernburg and Ballenstedt, of which that of Bernburg is the most, and that of Ballenstedt the least, populated. Of the towns, four, vu. Dessau, Bernburg, Cdthen and Zerbst, have populations exceeding 20,000. The inhabitants of the duchy, who mainly In-long to the upper Saxon race, are, with the exception of about i .',000 Roman Catholics and 1700 Jews, members of the Evan- gelical (Union) Church. The supreme ecclesiastical authority is the consistory in Dessau; while a synod of 39 members, elected for six years, assembles at periods to deliberate on internal matters touching the organization of the church. The Roman Catholics are under the bishop of Paderbom. There are within the duchy four grammar schools (gymnasia), five semi-classical and modern schools, a teachers' seminary and four high-grade girls' schools. Of the whole surface, land under tillage amounts to about 60, meadowland to 7 and forest to 25 %. The chief crops are corn (especially wheat), fruit, vegetables, potatoes, beet, tobacco, flax, linseed and hops. The land is well cultivated, and the husbandry on the royal domains and the large estates especially so. The pastures on the banks of the Elbe yield cattle of excellent quality. The forests are well stocked with game, such as deer and wild boar, and the open country is well supplied with partridges. The rivers yield abundant fish, salmon (in the Elbe), sturgeon and lampreys. The country is rich in lignite, and salt works are abundant. Of the manufactures of Anholt, the chief ore its sugar factories, distilleries, breweries and chemical works. Commerce is brisk, especially in raw products — corn, cattle, timber or wool. Coal (lignite), guano, oil and bricks are also articles of export. The trade of the country is furthered by its excellent roads, its navig- able rivers and its railways (165 m.), which are worked in con- nexion with the Prussian system. There is a chamber of commerce in Dessau. Constitution. — The duchy, by virtue of a fundamental law, proclaimed on the i7th of September 1859 and subsequently modified by various decrees, is a constitutional monarchy. The duke, who bears the title of " Highness," wields the executive power while sharing the legislation with the estates. The diet (Landtag) is composed of thirty-six members, of whom two are appointed by the duke, eight are representatives of landowners paying the highest taxes, two of the highest assessed members of the commercial and manufacturing classes, fourteen of the other electors of the towns and ten of the rural districts. The representatives are chosen for six years by indirect vote and must have completed their twenty-fifth year. The duke governs through a minister of state, who is the proeses of all the depart- ments— finance, home affairs, education, public worship and statistics. The budget estimates for the financial year 1905- 1906 placed the expenditure of the estate at £1,323,437. The public debt amounted on the 30th of June 1904 to £226,300. By convention with Prussia of 1867 the Anhalt troops form a contingent of the Prussian army. Appeal from the lower courts of the duchy lie* to the appeal court at Naumburg in ian Saxony. History.— During the 1 1 th century the greater part of Anhalt was included in the duchy of Saxony, and in the 1 2th century it came under the rule of Albert the Bear, margrave of Branden- burg. Albert was descended from Albert, count of BaUenstedt, whose son Esico (d. 1059 or 1060) appear* to have been the first to bear the title of count of Anhalt. Esico '§ grandson, Otto the Rich, count of Ballenstedt, was the father of Albert the Bear, by whom Anhalt was united with the mark of Brandenburg. When Albert died in 1170, his son Bernard, who received the title of duke of Saxony in 1 180, became count of Anhalt. Bernard died in 1212, and Anhalt, separated from Saxony, passed to his son Henry, who in 1218 took the title of prince and was the real founder of the house of Anhalt. On Henry's death in 1252 his three sons partitioned the principality and founded respectively the lines of Ascherslebcn, Bernburg and Zerbst. The family ruling in Aschersleben became extinct in 1315, and this district was subsequently incorporated with the neighbouring bishopric of Halberstadt. The last prince of the line of Anhalt- Bernburg died in 1468 and his lands were inherited by the princes of the sole remaining line, that of Anhalt-Zerbst. The territory belonging to this branch of the family had been divided in 1396, and after the acquisition of Bernburg Prince George I. made a further partition of Zerbst. Early in the i6th century, however, owing to the death or abdication of several princes, 'the family had become narrowed down to the two branches of Anhalt-Cothen and Anhalt-Dessau. Wolfgang, who became prince of Anhalt- Cothen in 1508, was a stalwart adherent of the Reformation, and after the battle of MUhlbcrg in 1547 was placed under the ban and deprived of his lands by the emperor Charles V. After the peace of Passau in 1552 he bought back his principality, but as he was childless he surrendered it in 1562 to his kinsmen the princes of Anhalt-Dessau. Ernest I. of Anhalt-Dessau (d. 1516) left three sons, John II., George III., and Joachim, who ruled their lands together for many yean, and who, like Prince Wolfgang, favoured the reformed doctrines, which thus became dominant in Anhalt. About 1546 the three brothers divided their principality and founded the lines of Zerbst, Plotzkau and Dessau. This division, however, was only temporary, as the acquisition of Cdthen, and a series of death* among the'ruling princes, enabled Joachim Ernest, a son of John II., to unite the whole of Anhalt under his rule in 1 570. Joachim Ernest died in 1 586 and his five sons ruled the land in common until 1603, when Anhalt was again divided, and the lines of Dessau, Bernburg, Plotzkau, Zerbst and Cdthen were refounded. The principality was ravaged during the Thirty Years' War, and in the earlier part of this struggle Christian I. of An halt- Bernburg took an important part. In 1635 an arrangement was made by the various princes of Anhalt, which gave a certain authority to the eldest member of the family, who was thus able to represent the principality as a whole. This proceeding was probably due to the necessity of maintaining an appearance of unity in view of the disturbed state of European politics. In 1665 the branch of Anhalt-Cdthen became extinct, and according to a family compact this district was inherited by Lebrecht of Anhalt-Pl6tzkau, who surrendered Plotzkau to Bern- burg.and took the titleof prince of Anhalt-Cothen. In the same year the princes of Anhalt decided that if any branch of the family became extinct its lands should be equally divided between the remaining branches. This arrangement was carried out after the death of Frederick Augustus of Anhalt-Zerbst in 1 793, and Zerbst was divided between the three remaining princes. During these years the policy of the different princes was marked, perhaps intentionally, by considerable uniformity. Once or twice Calvinism was favoured by a prince, but in general the bouse was loyal to the doctrines of Luther. The growth of Prussia provided Anhalt with a formidable neighbour, and the establishment and practice of primogeniture by all branches of the family prevented further divisions of the principality. In 1806 Alexius of Anhalt-Bernburg was created a duke by the emperor Francis II., and after the dissolution of the Empire each of the three princes 46 ANHALT-DESSAU took this title. Joining the Confederation of the Rhine in 1807, they supported Napoleon until 1813, when they transferred their allegiance to the allies; in 1815 they became members of the Germanic Confederation, and in 1828 joined, somewhat reluct- antly, the Prussian Zollverein. Anhalt-Cothen was ruled without division by a succession of princes, prominent among whom was Louis (d. 1650), who was both a soldier and a scholar; and after the death of Prince Charles at the battle of Semlin in 1789 it passed to his son Augustus II. This prince sought to emulate the changes which had recently been made in France by dividing Cothen into two departments and introducing the Code Napoleon. Owing to his extravagance he left a large amount of debt to his nephew and successor, Louis II., and on this account the control of the finances was transferred from the prince to the estates. Under Louis's successor Ferdinand, who was a Roman Catholic and brought the Jesuits into Anhalt, the state of the finances grew worse and led to the interference of the king of Prussia and to the appointment of a Prussian official. When the succeeding prince, Henry, died in 1847, this family became extinct, and according to an arrangement between the lines of Anhalt-Dessau and Anhalt-Bernburg, Cothen was added to Dessau. Anhalt-Bernburg had been weakened by partitions, but its princes had added several districts to their lands; and in 1812, on the extinction of a cadet branch, it was again united under a single ruler. The feeble rule of Alexander Charles, who became duke in 1834, and the disturbed state of Europe in the following decade, led to considerable unrest, and in 1849 Bernburg was occupied by Prussian troops. A number of abortive attempts were made to change the government, and as Alexander Charles was unlikely to leave any children, Leopold of Anhalt-Dessau took some part in the affairs of Bernburg. Eventually in 1839 a new constitution was established for Bernburg and Dessau jointly, and when Alexander Charles died in 1863 both were united under the rule of Leopold. Anhalt-Dessau had been divided in 1632, but was quickly reunited; and in 1693 it came under the rule of Leopold I. (see ANHALT-DESSAU, LEOPOLD I., PRINCE OF), the famous soldier who was generally known as the " Old Dessauer." The sons of Leopold's eldest son were excluded from the succession on account of the marriage of their father being morganatic, and the princi- pality passed in 1747 to his second son, Leopold II. The unrest of 1848 spread to Dessau, and led to the interference of the Prussians and to the establishment of the new constitution in 1859. Leopold IV., who reigned from 1817 to 1871, had the satisfaction in 1863 of reuniting the whole of Anhalt under his rule. He took the title of duke of Anhalt, summoned one Landtag for the whole of the duchy, and in 1866 fought for Prussia against Austria. Subsequently a quarrel over the posses- sion of the ducal estates between the duke and the Landtag broke the peace of the duchy, but this was settled in 1872. In 1871 Anhalt became a state of the German Empire. Leopold IV. was followed by his son Frederick I., and on the death of this prince in 1904 his son Frederick II. became duke of Anhalt. AUTHORITIES. — F. Knoke, Anhaltische Gcschichte (Dessau, 1893); G. Krause, Urkunden, Aktenstucke und Briefe zur Geschichte der anhaltischen Lande und ihrer Fursten unter dent Drucke des 30 jahrigen Krieges (Leipzig, 1861-1866); O. von Heinemann, Codex diplomatic** Anhaltinus (Dessau, 1867-1883); Siebigk, Das Her- zogthum Anhalt historisch, geographisch und statistisch dargestellt (Dessau, 1867). ANHALT-DESSAU, LEOPOLD I., PRINCE OF (1676-1747), called the "Old Dessauer" (Alter Dessauer), general field marshal in the Prussian army, was the only surviving son of John George II. , prince of Anhalt-Dessau, and was born on the 3rd of July 1676 at Dessau. From his earliest youth he was devoted to the pro- fession of arms, for which he educated himself physically and mentally. He became colonel of a Prussian regiment in 1693, and in the same year his father's death placed him at the head of his own principality; thereafter, during the whole of his long life, he performed the duties of a sovereign prince and a Prussian officer. His first campaign was that of 1695 in the Netherlands, in which he was present at the siege of Namur. He remained in the field to the end of the war of 1697, the affairs of the principality being managed chiefly by his mother, Princess Henriette Catherine of Orange. In 1698 he married Anna Luise Fose, an apothecary's daughter of Dessau, in spite of his mother's long and earnest opposition, and subsequently he procured for her the rank of a princess from the emperor (1701). Their married life was long and happy, and the princess acquired an influence over the stern nature of her husband which she never ceased to exert on behalf of his subjects, and after the death of Leopold's mother she performed the duties of regent when he was absent on campaign. Often, too, she accompanied him into the field. Leopold's career as a soldier in important commands begins with the outbreak of the War of the Spanish Succession. He had made many improve- ments in the Prussian army, notably the introduction of the iron ramrod about 1 700, and he now took the field at the head of a Prussian corps on the Rhine, serving at the sieges of Kaiserswerth and Venlo. In the following year (i 703), having obtained the rank of lieu tenant-general, Leopold took part in the siege of Bonn and dis- tinguished himself very greatly in the battle of Hochstadt, in which the Austrians and their allies were defeated by the French under Marshal Villars (September 20,1703). In the campaign of 1 704 the Prussian contingent served under Prince Louis of Baden and sub- sequently under Eugene, and Leopold himself won great glory by his conduct at Blenheim. In 1705 he was sent with a Prussian corps to join Prince Eugene in Italy, and on the i6th of August he displayed his bravery at the hard-fought battle of Cassano. In the following year he added to his reputation in the battle of Turin, where he was the first to enter the hostile entrenchments (September 7, 1706). He served in one more campaign in Italy, and then went withEugene to join Marlborough in the Netherlands, being present in 1709 at the siege of Tournay and the battle of Malplaquet. In 1710 he succeeded to the command of the whole Prussian contingent at the front, and in 1712, at the particular desire of the crown prince, Frederick William, who had served with him as a volunteer, he was made a general field marshal. Shortly before this he had executed a coup de main on the castle of Mors, which was held by the Dutch in defiance of the claims of the king of Prussia to the possession. The operation was effected with absolute precision and the castle was seized without a shot being fired. In the earlier part of the reign of Frederick William I., the prince of Dessau was one of the most influential members of the Prussian governing circle. In the war with Sweden (1715) he accompanied the king to the front, commanded an army of. 40,000 men, and met and defeated Charles XII. in a severe battle on the island of Riigen (November 16) . His conduct of the siege of Stralsund which followed was equally skilful,and the great results of the war to Prussia were largely to be attributed to his leader- ship in the campaign. In the years of peace,and especially after a court quarrel (1725) and duel with General von Grumbkow, he devoted himself to the training of the Prussian army. The reputa- tion it had gained in the wars of 1675 to 1713, though good, gave no hint of its coming glory, and it was even in 1 740 accounted one of the minor armies of Europe. That it proved, when put to the test, to be by far the best military force existing, may be taken as the summary result of Leopold's work. The " Old Dessauer " was one of the sternest disciplinarians in an age of stern discipline, and the technical training of the infantry, under his hand, made them superior to all others in the proportion of five to three (see AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION, WAR OF THE). He was essentially an infantry soldier; in his time artillery did not decide battles, but he suffered the cavalry service, in which he felt little interest, to be comparatively neglected, with results which appeared at Mollwitz. Frederick the Great formed the cavalry of Hohenfried- berg and Leuthen himself, but had it not been for the incompar- able infantry trained by the "Old Dessauer" he would never have had the opportunity of doing so. Thus Leopold, heartily sup- ported by Frederick William, who was himself called the great drill-master of Europe, turned to good account the twenty years following the peace with Sweden. During this time two irftidents in his career call for special mention: first, his intervention in the case of the crown prince Frederick, who was condemned to death for desertion, and his continued and finally successful efforts to ANHYDRITE— ANILINE secure Frederick's reinstatement in the Prussian army; anc secondly, his part in the War of the IN.Iish Succession on the Rhine where he served under his old chief Eugene and held the office o field marshal of the Km, With the death of Frederick William in 1740, Frederick succeeded to the Prussian throne, and a few months later tool place the invasion and conquest of Silesia, the first act in the lon| Silesian wars and the test of the work of the "Old DessauerV lifetime. The prince himself was not often employed in the king's own army, though his sons held high commands under Frederick. The king, indeed, found Leopold, who was reputed since the death of Eugene, the greatest of living soldiers, somewhat ilulu ult to manage, and the prince spent most of the campaigning yean up to 1745 in command of an army of observation on the Saxon frontier. Early in that year his wife died. He was now over seventy, but his last campaign was destined to be the most brilliant of his long career. A combined effort of the Austrian* and Saxons to retrieve the disasters of the summer by a winter campaign towards Berlin itself led to a hurried concentration ol the Prussians. Frederick from Silesia checked the Austrian main army and hastened towards Dresden. But before he had arrived, Leopold, no longer in observation, had decided the war by his overwhelming victory of Kesselsdorf (December 14, 1745). It was his habit to pray before battle, for he was a devout Lutheran. On this last field his words were, " O Lord God, let me not be disgraced in my old days. Or if Thou wilt not help me, do not help these scoundrels, but leave us to try it ourselves." With this great victory Leopold's career ended. He retired from active service, and the short remainder of his life was spent at Dessau, where he died on the 7th of April 1747. He was succeeded by his son, LEOPOLD II., MAXIMILIAN, PRINCE or ANHALT-DESSAU (1700-1751), who was one of the best of Frederick's subordinate generals, and especially distinguished himself by the capture of Glogau in 1741, and his generalship at Mollwitz, Chotusitz (where he was made general field marshal on the field of battle), Hohenfriedberg and Soor. Another son, PRINCE DIETRICH OF ANHALT-DESSAU (d. 1769), was also a distinguished Prussian general. But the most famous of the sons was PRINCE MORITZ OF ANHALT-DESSAU (1712-1760), who entered the Prussian army in 1725, saw his first service as a volunteer in the War of the Polish Succession (1734-35), and in the latter years of the reign of Frederick William held important commands. In the Silesian wars of Frederick II., Moritz, the ablest of the old Leopold's sons, greatly distinguished himself, especially at the battle of Hohen- friedberg (Striegau), 1745. At Kesselsdorf it was the wing led by the young Prince Moritz that carried the Austrian lines and won the "Old Dessauer's" last fight. In the years of peace preceding the Seven Years' War, Moritz was employed by Frederick the Great in the colonizing of the waste lands of Pomerania and the Oder Valley. When the king took the field again in 1756, Moritz was in command of one of the columns which hemmed in the Saxon army in the lines of Pirna, and he received the surrender of Rutowski's force after the failure of the Austrian attempts at relief. Next year Moritz underwent changes of fortune. At the battle of Kolin he led the left wing, which, through a misunder- standing with the king, was prematurely drawn into action and failed hopelessly. In the disastrous days which followed, Moritz was under the cloud of Frederick's displeasure. But the glorious victory of Leuthen (December 5, 1757) put an end to this. At the close of that day, Frederick rode down the lines and called out to General Prince Moritz, "I congratulate you, HerrFeldmarschall!" At Zorndorf he again distinguished himself, but at the surprise of Hochkirch fell wounded into the hands of the Austrians. Two years later, soon after his release, his wound proved mortal. AUTHORITIES.— Varnhagen von Ense. Preuss. biographiscke Denk- maJe. vol. ii. (3rd ed., 1872); Mtiitar Konversations-Lexiton, vol. ii. (Leipzig, 1833); Anon.. Furst Leopold I. ton Anlialt und seine Sohne (Dessau, 1852); G. Pauli, Leben grosser Helden, vol. vi.; von Orlich. Pnns iforit* von A nhalt-Dessau (Berlin, 1842) ; Crousatz Mtlttdnsche Denkwurdigkeiten des Fursten Leopold von Ankait-Dessau (1875); supplements to Militdr WotkenblcU (1878 and 1889); Siebigk, Selitstbtograpkie da Fursten Leopold von Anhalt- Dessau 47 . Zwr (De«.u. 1876) da Dt, Alt** •• - Wdkrlmi 1. an den Purtltn L. (Berlin. 1905). ANHYDRITE, a mineral, differing chemically from the more commonly occurring gypsum in containing no water of cryital- lization, being anhydrous calcium sulphate, CaSO,. It crystal- lizes in the orthorhombic system, and has three directions of perfect cleavage parallel to the three planes of symmetry. It is not isomorphous with the orthorhombic barium and strontium sulphates, as might be expected from the chemical formulae. Distinctly developed crystals are somewhat rare, the mineral usually presenting the form of cleavage masses. The hardness is 3 J and the specific gravity 2-9. The colour is white, sometimes greyish, bluish or reddish. On the best developed of the three cleavages the lustre is pearly, on other surfaces it is of the ordinary vitreous type. Anhydrite is most frequently found in salt deposits with gypsum; it was, for instance, first discovered, in 1704, in a salt mine near Hall in Tirol. Other localities which produce typical specimens of the mineral, and where the mode of occurrence is the same, are Stassfurt in Germany, Aussee in Styria and Bex in Switzerland. At all these places it is only met with at some depth; nearer the surface of the ground it has been altered to gypsum owing to absorption of water. From an aqueous solution calcium sulphate is deposited as crystals of gypsum, but when the solution contains an excess of sodium or potassium chloride anhydrite is deposited. This is one of the several methods by which the mineral has been prepared artificially, and is identical with its mode of origin in nature, the mineral having crystallized out in salt basins. The name anhydrite was given by A. G. Werner in 1804, because of the absence of water, as contrasted with the presence of water in gypsum. Other names for the species are muriacite and karstenite; the former, an earlier name, being given under the impression that the substance was a chloride (muriate). A peculiar variety occurring as contorted concretionary masses is known as tripe-stone, and a scaly granular variety, from Vulpino, near Bergamo, in Lombardy, as vulpinite; the latter is cut and polished for ornamental -purposes. (L. J. S.) ANI (anc. Abnicum), an ancient and ruined Armenian city, in Russian Transcaucasia, government Erivan, situated at an altitude of 4390 ft., between the Arpa-chai (Horfxuiu) and a deep ravine. In 961 it became the capital of the Bagratid kings of Armenia, and when yielded to the Byzantine emperor (1046) it was a populous city, known traditionally as the " city with the loot churches." It was taken eighteen years later by the Seljuk Turks, five times by the Georgians between 1125 and 1209, in 1239 by the Mongols, and its ruin was completed by an earth- quake in 1319. It is still surrounded by a double wall partly in •uins, and amongst the remains are a " patriarchal " church inished in 1010, two other churches, both of the nth century, a fourth built in 1215, and a palace of large size. See Brosset, Let Ruines d'Ani (1860-1861). ANICETUS, pope c. 154-167. It was during his pontificate that St Polycarp visited the Roman Church. ANICHINI, LUIGI, Italian engraver of seals and medals, a native of Ferrara, lived at Venice about 1550. Michelangelo >ronounced his " Interview of Alexander the Great with the ligh-priest at Jerusalem," "the perfection of the art." His medals of Henry II. of France and Pope Paul III. are greatly valued. ANILINE, PHENYLAMNE, or AIIINOBENZENE, (C«H»NHi), an organic base first obtained from the destructive distillation of ndigo in 1826 by O. Unverdorben (Pogg. Ann., 1826, 8, p. 397), who named it crystalline. In 1834, F. Runge (Pogg. Ann., 1834, 31, p. 65; 32, p. 331) isolated from coal-tar a substance which >roduced a beautiful blue colour on treatment with chloride of ime; this he named kyanol or cyanol. In 1841, C. J. Fritzsche showed that by treating indigo with caustic potash it yielded an il, which he named aniline, from the specific name of one of the 48 ANIMAL— ANIMAL HEAT indigo-yielding plants, Indigofera anil, anil being derived from the Sanskrit nila, dark-blue, and nlld, the indigo plant. About the same time N. N. Zinin found that on reducing nitrobenzene, a base was formed which he named bcnzidam. A. W. von Hofmann investigated these variously prepared substances, and proved them to be identical, and thenceforth they took their place as one body, under the name aniline or phenylamine. Pure aniline is a basic substance of an oily consistence, colourless, melting at —8° and boiling at 184° C. On exposure to air it absorbs oxygen and resinifies, becoming deep brown in colour; it ignites readily, burning with a large smoky flame. It possesses a f somewhat pleasant vinous odour and a burning aromatic taste; it is a highly acrid poison. Aniline is a weak base and forms salts with the mineral acids. Aniline hydrochloride forms large colourless tables, which become greenish on exposure; it is the " aniline salt " of com- merce. The sulphate forms beautiful white plates. Although aniline is but feebly basic, it precipitates zinc, aluminium and ferric salts, and on wanning expels ammonia from its salts. Aniline combines directly with alkyl iodides to form secondary and tertiary amines; boiled with carbon disulphide it gives sulphocarbanilide (diphenyl thio-urea), CS(NHC8Hj)i, which may be decomposed into phenyl mustard-oil, C«HsCNS, and triphenyl guanidine, QH4N: C(NHC«Hj)j- Sulphuric acid at 180° gives sulphanilic acid, NHj-CsH^SOjH. Anilides, com- pounds in which the amino group is substituted by an acid radical, are prepared by heating aniline with certain acids; antifebrin or acetanilide is thus obtained from acetic acid and aniline. The oxidation of aniline has been carefully investigated. In alkaline solution azobenzene results, while arsenic acid pro- duces the violet-colouring matter violaniline. Chromic acid converts it into quinone, while chlorates, in the presence of certain metallic salts (especially of vanadium), give aniline black. Hydrochloric acid and potassium chlorate give chloranil. Potas- sium permanganate in neutral solution oxidizes it to nitro- benzene, in alkaline solution to azobenzene, ammonia and oxalic acid, in acid solution to aniline black. Hypochlorous acid gives para-amino phenol and para-amino diphenylamine (£. Bam- berger, Ber., 1808, 31, p. 15*2). The great commercial value of aniline is due to the readiness with which it yields, directly or indirectly, valuable dyestuffs. The discovery of mauve in 1858 by Sir W. H. Perkin was the first of a series of dyestuffs which are now to be numbered by hundreds. Reference should be made to the articles DYEING, FUCHSINE, SAFRANINE, INDUUNES, for more details on this subject. In addition to dyestuffs, it is a starting-product for the manufacture of many drugs, such as antipyrine, antifebrin, &c. Aniline is manufactured by reducing nitrobenzene with iron and hydrochloric acid and steam-distilling the product. The purity of the product depends upon the quality of the benzene from which the nitrobenzene was prepared. In com- merce three brands of aniline are distinguished — aniline oil for blue, which is pure aniline; aniline oil for red, a mixture of equimolecular quantities of aniline and ortho- and para-tolui- dines; and aniline oil for safranine, which contains aniline and ortho-toluidine, and is obtained from the distillate (tchappts) of the fuchsine fusion. Monomethyl and dimethyl aniline are colourless liquids prepared by heating aniline, aniline hydro- chloride and methyl alcohol in an autoclave at 220°. They are of great importance in the colour industry. Monomethyl aniline boils at 193-195°; dimethyl aniline at 192°. ANIMAL (Lat. animalis, from anima, breath, soul), a term first used as a noun or adjective to denote a living thing, but now used to designate one branch of living things as opposed to the other branch known as plants. Until the discovery of protoplasm, and the series of investigations by which it was established that the cell was a fundamental structure essentially alike in both animals and plants (see CYTOLOGY), there was a vague belief that plants, if they could really be regarded as animated crea- tures, exhibited at the most a lower grade of life. We know now that in so far as life and living matter can be investigated by science, animals and plants cannot be described as being alive in different degrees. Animals and plants are extremely closely related organisms, alike in their fundamental characters, and each grading into organisms which possess some of the characters of both classes or kingdoms (see PROTISTA). The actual boundaries between animals and plants are artificial; they are rather due to the ingenious analysis of the systematist than actually resident in objective nature. The most obvious distinction is that the animal cell-wall is either absent or composed of a nitrogenous material, whereas the plant cell-wall is composed of a carbohydrate material — cellulose. The animal and the plant alike require food to repair waste, to build up new tissue and to provide material which, by chemical change, may liberate the energy which appears in the processes of life. The food is alike in both cases; it consists of water, certain inorganic salts, carbohydrate material and proteid material. Both animals and plants take their water and inorganic salts directly as such. The animal cell can absorb its carbohydrate and proteid food only in the form of carbohydrate and proteid; it is dependent, in fact, on the pre-existence of these organic substances, themselves the products of living matter, and in this respect the animal is essentially a parasite on existing animal and plant life. The plant, on the other hand, if it be a green plant, containing chloro- phyll, is capable, in the presence of light, of building up both carbohydrate material and proteid material from inorganic salts; if it be a fungus, devoid of chlorophyll, whilst it is de- pendent on pre-existing carbohydrate material and is capable of absorbing, like an animal, proteid material as such, it is able to build up its proteid food from material chemically simpler than proteid. On these basal differences are founded most of the characters which make the higher forms of animal and plant life so different. The animal body, if it be composed of many cells, follows a different architectural plan; the compact nature of its food, and the yielding nature of its cell-walls, result in a form of structure consisting essentially of tubular or spherical masses of cells arranged concentrically round the food-cavity. The relatively rigid nature of the plant cell-wall, and the attenu- ated inorganic food-supply of plants, make possible and neces- sary a form of growth in which the greatest surface is exposed to the exterior, and thus the plant body is composed of flattened laminae and elongated branching growths. The distinctions between animals and plants are in fact obviously secondary and adaptive, and point clearly towards the conception of a common origin for the two forms of life, a conception which is made still more probable by the existence of many low forms in which the primary differences between animals and plants fade out. An animal may be defined as a living organism, the protoplasm of which does not secrete a cellulose cell- wall, and which requires for its existence proteid material obtained from the living or dead bodies of existing plants or animals. The common use of the word animal as the equivalent of mammal, as opposed to bird or reptile or fish, is erroneous. The classification of the animal kingdom is dealt with in the article ZOOLOGY. (P. C. M.) ANIMAL HEAT. Under this heading is discussed the physiology of the temperature of the animal body. The higher animals have within their bodies certain sources of heat, and also some mechanism by means of which both the production and loss of heat can be regulated. This is conclusively shown by the fact that both in summer and winter their mean temperature remains the same. But it was not until the intro- duction of thermometers that any exact data on the temperature of animals could be obtained. It was then found that local differences were present, since heat production and heat loss vary considerably in different parts of the body, although the circulation of the blood tends to bring about a mean temperature of the internal parts. [Hence it is important to determine the temperature of those parts which most nearly approaches to that of the internal organs. Also for such results to be compar- able they must be made in the same situation. The rectum gives most accurately the temperature of internal parts, or in women and some animals the vagina, uterus or bladder. ANIMAL HEAT F. 988 °'' e o n « t Occasionally that of the urine a* it leave* the urethra may be of \ur. More usually the temperature is taken in the mouth, axilla or groin. Worm and Cold Blooded Animals.— by numerous observations upon men and animals, John Hunter showed that the essential difference between the so-called warm-blooded and cold-blooded animals lies in the constancy of the temperature of the former, and the variability of the temperature of the latter. Those animals high in the scale of evolution, as birds and mammals, have a high temperature almost constant and independent of that of the surrounding air, whereas among the lower animals there is much variation of body temperature, dependent entirely on their surroundings. There are, however, certain mammals which are exceptions, being warm-blooded during the summer, but cold-blooded during the winter when they hibernate; such are the hedgehog, bat and dormouse. John Hunter suggested that two groups should be known as " animals of permanent heat at all atmospheres " and " animals of a heat variable with every atmosphere," but later Bcrgmann suggested that they should be known as " homoiothermic " and " poikilothermic " animals. But it must be re- membered there is no hard and fast line between the two groups. Also, from work re- cently done by J. O. Wakelin Barnttt, it has been shown that under certain pathological con- ditions a warm-blooded (homoi- othermic) animal may become 99'2 for a time cold-blooded (poiki- 990 lothermic). He has shown conclusively that this condition exists in rabbits suffering from 98* rabies during the last period of their life, the rectal temperature being then within a few degrees 98'2 of the room temperature and varying with it. He explains this condition by the assump- tion that the nervous median- 97 e ism of heat regulation has become paralysed. The re- spiration and heart-rate being »7-2 also retarded during this period, the resemblance to the condition of hibernation is considerable. Again, Sutherland Simpson has shown that during deep anaesthesia a warm-blooded animal tends to take the same temperature as that of its environment. He demonstrated that when a monkey is kept deeply anaesthetized with ether and is placed in a cold chamber, its temperature gradu- ally falls, and that when it has reached a sufficiently low point (about 25° C. in the monkey) , the employment of an anaesthetic is no longer necessary, the animal then being insensible to pain and incapable of being roused by any form of stimulus; it is, in fact, narcotized by cold, and is in a state of what may be called " artificial hibernation." Once again this is explained by the fact that the heat-regulating mechanism has been interfered with. Similar results have been obtained from experiments on cats. These facts — with many others — tend to show that the power of maintaining a constant temperature has been a gradual development, as Darwin's theory of evolution suggests, and that anything that interferes with the due working of the higher nerve-centres puts the animal back again, for the time being, on to a lower plane of evolution. Variations in the Temperature of Man and some other Animals. — As stated above, the temperature of warm-blooded animals is maintained with but slight variation. In health under normal conditions the temperature of man varies between 36° C. and 38° C., or if the thermometer be placed in the axilla, between 36-23° C. and 37-5° C. In the mouth the reading would be from •25° C. to 1-5° C. higher than this; and in the rectum some -9° C. higher still. The temperature of infants and young children 49 of wide has a much greater range than this, and Is divergencies from comparatively slight cause*. Of the lower warm-blooded animals, there are some that appear to be cold-blooded at birth. Kittens, rabbits mad puppks, if removed from their surroundings shortly after birth, lose their body heat until their temperature has fallen to within a few degrees of that of the surrounding air. But such «"i"vilt are at birth blind, helpless and in some cases naked. Animals who are born when in a condition of greater development can maintain their temperature fairly constant. In strong, healthy infants a day or two old the temperature rises slightly, but in that of weakly, ill-developed children it either remains stationary or falls. The cause of the variable temperature in infants and young immature animals is the imperfect development of the nervous regulating mechanism. The average temperature falls slightly from infancy to puberty and again from puberty to middle age, but after that stage is passed the temperature begins to rise again, and by about the eightieth year is as high as in infancy. A diurnal variation has been observed dependent on the periods of rest and activity, Hours of activity and work. Hour* of mt and tletp. 5 a T B 9 10 M 1 7 3 \ l-t C. 37' 37 -W 3733 37 n 37H 3700 J878 ie-33 162? the maximum ranging from 10 A.II. to 6 P.M., the minimum from 1 1 P.M. to 3 A.M. Sutherland Simpson and J. J. Galbraith have recently done much work on this subject. In their first experi- ments they showed that in a monkey there is a well-marked and regular diurnal variation of the body temperature, and that by reversing the daily routine this diurnal variation is also reversed. The diurnal temperature curve follows the periods of rest and activity, and is not dependent on the incidence of day and night; in monkeys which are active during the night and resting during the day, the body temperature is highest at night and lowest through the day. They then made observations on the tempera- ture of animals and birds of nocturnal habit, where the periods of rest and activity are naturally the reverse of the ordinary through habit and not from outside interference. They found that in nocturnal birds the temperature is highest during the natural period of activity (night) and lowest during the period of rest (day), but that the mean temperature is lower and the range less than in diurnal birds of the same size. That the temperature curve of diurnal birds is essentially similar to that of man and other homoiothermal animal^ except that the maximum occurs earlier in the afternoon and the minimum earlier in the morning. Also that the curves obtained from rabbit, guinea-pig and dog were quite similar to those from man. The mean temperature of the female was higher than that of the male in all the species examined whose sex had been determined. Meals sometimes cause a slight elevation, sometimes a slight depression — alcohol seems always to produce a fall. Exercise ANIMAL WORSHIP and variations of external temperature within ordinary limits cause very slight change, as there are many compensating influences at work, which are discussed later. Even from very active exercise the temperature does not rise more than one degree, and if carried to exhaustion a fall is observed. In travelling from very cold to very hot regions a variation of less than one degree occurs, and the temperature of those living in the tropics is practically identical with those dwelling in the Arctic regions. Limits compatible with Life. — There are limits both of heat and cold that a warm-blooded animal can bear, and other far wider limits that a cold-blooded animal may endure and yet live. The effect of too extreme a cold is to lessen metabolism, and hence to lessen the production of heat. Both katabolic and anabolic changes share in the depression, and though less energy is used up, still less energy is generated. This diminished metabolism tells first on the central nervous system, especially the brain and those parts concerned in consciousness. Both heart-beat and respiration-number become diminished,drowsiness supervenes, becoming steadily deeper until it passes into the sleep of death. Occasionally, however, convulsions may set in towards the end, and a death somewhat similar to that of asphyxia takes place. In some recent experiments on cats performed by Sutherland Simpson and Percy T. Herring, they found them unable to survive when the rectal temperature was reduced below 16° C. At this low temperature respiration became increasingly feeble, the heart-impulse usually continued after respiration had ceased, the beats becoming very irregular, apparently ceasing, then beginning again. Death appeared to be mainly due to asphyxia, and the only certain sign that it had taken place was the loss of knee jerks. On the other hand, too high a temperature hurries on the metabolism of the various tissues at such a rate that their capital is soon exhausted. Blood that is too warm produces dyspnoea and soon exhausts the metabolic capital of the respiratory centre. The rate of the heart is quickened, the beats then become irregular and finally cease. The central nervous system is also profoundly affected, consciousness may be lost, and the patient falls into a comatose condition, or delirium and convulsions may set in. All these changes can be watched in any patient suffering from an acute fever. The lower limit of temperature that man can endure depends on many things, but no one can survive a temperature of 45° C. (113° F.) or above for very long. Mammalian muscle becomes rigid with heat rigor at about 50° C., and obviously should this temperature be reached the sudden rigidity of the whole body would render life impossible. H. M. Vernon has recently done work on the death temperature and paralysis temperature (temperature of heat rigor) of various animals. He found that animals of the same class of the animal kingdom showed very similar temperature values, those from the Amphibia examined being 38-5° C., Fishes 39°, Reptilia 45°, and various Molluscs 46°. Also in the case of Pelagic animals he showed a relation between death temperature and the quantity of solid constituents of the body, Ceslus having lowest death temperature and least amount of solids in its body. But in the higher animals his experiments tend to show that there is greater variation in both the chemical and physical characters of the protoplasm, and hence greater variation in the extreme temperature compatible with life. Regulation of Temperature. — The heat of the body is generated by the chemical changes — those of oxidation — undergone not by any particular substance or in any one place, but by the tissues at large. Wherever destructive metabolism (katabolism) is going on, heat is being set free. When a muscle does work it also gives rise to heat, and if this is estimated it can be shown that the muscles alone during their contractions provide far more heat than the whole amount given out by the body. Also it must be remembered that the heart — also a muscle, — never resting, does in the 24 hours no inconsiderable amount of work, and hence must give rise to no inconsiderable amount of heat. From this it is clear that the larger proportion of total heat of the body is supplied by the muscles. These are essentially the " thermogenic tissues." Next to the muscles as heat generators come the various secretory glands, especially the liver, which appears never to rest in this respect. The brain also must be a source of heat, since its temperature is higher than that of the arterial blood with which it is supplied. Also a certain amount of heat is produced by the changes which the food undergoes in the alimentary canal before it really enters the body. But heat while continually being produced is also continually being lost by the skin, lungs, urine and faeces. And it is by the constant modification of these two factors, (i) heat production and (2) heat loss, that the constant temperature of a warm-blooded animal is maintained. Heat is lost to the body through the faeces and urine, respiration, conduction and radiation from the skin, and by evaporation of perspiration. The following are approximately the relative amounts of heat lost through these various channels (different authorities give somewhat different figures): — faeces and urine about 3, respiration about 20, skin (conduction, radiation and evaporation) about 77. Hence it is clear the chief means of loss are the skin and the lungs. The more air that passes in and out of the lungs in a given time, the greater the loss of heat. And in such animals as the dog, who do not perspire easily by the skin, respiration becomes far more important. But for man the great heat regulator is undoubtedly the skin, which regulates heat loss by its vasomotor mechanism, and also by the nervous mechanism of perspiration. Dilatation of the cutaneous vascular areas leads to a larger flow of blood through the skin, and so tends to cool the body, and vice versa. Also the special nerves of perspiration can increase or lessen heat loss by promoting or diminishing the secretions of the skin. There are greater difficulties in the exact determination in the amount of heat produced, but there are certain well- known facts in connexion with it. A larger living body naturally produces more heat than a smaller one of the same nature, but the surface of the smaller, being greater in proportion to its bulk than that of the larger, loses heat at a more rapid rate. Hence to maintain the same constant bodily temperature, the smaller animal must produce a relatively larger amount of heat. And in the struggle for existence this has become so. Food temporarily increases the production of heat, the rate of production steadily rising after a meal until a maximum is reached from about the 6th to the gth hour. If sugar be included in the meal the maximum is reached earlier; if mainly fat, later. Muscular work very largely increases the production of heat, and hence the more active the body the greater the production of heat. But all the arrangements in the animal economy for the pro- duction and loss of heat are themselves probably regulated by the central nervous system, there being a thermogenic centre — situated above the spinal cord, and according to some observers in the optic thalamus. AUTHORITIES. — M.S. Pembrey, "Animal Heat," in Schafer's Text- book of Physiology (1898); C. R. Richet, " Chaleur," in Dictionnaire de physiologic (Paris, 1898) ; Hale White, Croonian Lectures, Lancet, London, 1897; Pembrey and Nicol, Journal of Physiology, vol. xxiii., 1898-1899; H. M. Vernon, "Heat Rigor," Journal of Physio- logy, xxiy., 1899; H. M. Vernon, "Death Temperatures,' Journal of Physiology, xxv., 1899; F. C. Eve, " Temperature on Nerve Cells," Journal of Physiology, xxvi., 1900; G. Weiss, Comptes Rendus, Sac. de Biol., Hi., 1900; Swale Vincent and Thomas Lewis, " Heat Rigor of Muscle," Journal of Physiology, 1901 ; Sutherland Simpson and Percy Herring, " Cold and Reflex Action," Journal of Physiology, 1905; Sutherland Simpson, Proceedings of Physiological Soc., July 19, 1902; Sutherland Simpson and J. J. Galbraith, " Diurnal Variation of Body Temperature," Journal of Physiology, 1905; Transactions Royal Society Edinburgh, 1905; Proc. Physiological Society, p. xx., 1903; A. E. Boycott and J. S. Haldane, Effects of High Temperatures on Man. ANIMAL WORSHIP, an ill-defined term, covering facts ranging from the worship of the real divine animal, commonly conceived as a " god-body," at one end of the scale, to respect for the bones of a slain animal or even the use of a respectful name for the living animal at the other end. Added to this, in many works on the subject we find reliance placed, especially for the African facts, on reports of travellers who were merely visitors to the regions on which they wrote. ANIMAL WORSHIP CY«uji>f.) did great things in the reign of Anne. The chief political events of the period were the War of the Polish Succession and the second * Crimean War. The former was caused by the reappearance of Stanislaus Leszczynski as a candidate for the Polish throne after the death of Augustus II. (February i, 1733). The interests of Russia would not permit her to recognize a candidate dependent directly on France and indirectly upon Sweden and Turkey, all three powers being at that time opposed to Russia's "system." She accordingly united with Austria to support the candidature of the late king's son, Augustus of Saxony. So far as Russia was con- cerned, the War of the Polish Succession was quickly over. Much more important was the Crimean War of 1 736-39. This war marks the beginning of that systematic struggle on the part of Russia to recover her natural and legitimate southern boundaries. It lasted * Vasily Golitsuin's expedition under the regency of Sophia was the first Crimean War (1687-89). ANNE OF BRITTANY— ANNE OF DENMARK 69 four years and • half, and cost her a hundred thousand men and millions of roubles, and though invariably successful, she had to be content with the acquisition of a tingle city (Azov) with a small district at the mouth of the Don. Vet more had been gained than was immediately apparent. In the first place, this was the only war hitherto waged by Russia against Turkey which had not ended in crushing disaster. Munnii h had at least dissipated the illusion of Ottoman invincibility, and taught the Russian soldier that 100,000 janissaries and spahis were no match, in a fair field, for half that number of grenadiers and hussars. In the second place the Tatar hordes had been well nigh exterminated. In the thin) place Russia's signal and unexpected successes in the Steppe had immensely increased her prestige on the continent. " This court begins to have a great deal to say in the affairs of Europe," remarked the English minister. Sir Claudius Rondeau, a year later. The last days of Anne were absorbed by the endeavour to strengthen the position of the heir to the throne, the baby cesarevich Ivan, afterwards Ivan VI., the son of the empress's niece, Anna Lcopoldovna, against the superior claims of her cousin the cesarcvna Elizabeth. The empress herself died three months later (j8th of October 1740). Her last act was to appoint Biren regent during the infancy of her great-nephew. Anne was a grim, sullen woman, frankly sensual, but as well- meaning as ignorance and vindictiveness would allow her to be. But she had much natural good sense, was a true friend and, in her more cheerful moments, an amiable companion. Lady Rondeau's portrait of the empress shows her to the best advan- tage. She is described as a large woman, towering above all the cavaliers of her court, but very well shaped for her size, easy and graceful in her person, of a majestic bearing, but with an awful- ness in her countenance which revolted those who disliked her. See R. Nisbet Bain, The Pupils of Peter the Great (London. 1897) ; Letters from a tody who resided some years in Russia (i.e. Lady Rondeau) (London, 1775); Christoph Hermann Manstein, Mtmoires sur la Russie (Amsterdam, 1771; English edition, London, 1856); Gerhard Anton von \\a\cm.Lebensschreibungdes Feldm.B.C.Grafenvon .\funnifk (Oldenburg, 1 803) ; Claudius Rondeau, Diplomatic Despatches from Russia, 1728-1739 (St Petersburg, 1889-1892). (R. N. B-.) ANNE OF BRITTANY (1477-1314), daughter of Francis II., duke of Brittany, and Marguerite de Foix. She was scarcely twelve years old when she succeeded her father as duchess on the 9th of September 1488. Charles VIII. aimed at establishing his authority over her; Alain d'Albret wished to marry her; Jean de Rohan claimed the duchy ; and her guardian, the marshal de Rieux, was soon in open revolt against his sovereign. In 1489 the French army invaded Brittany. In order to protect her independence, Anne concluded an alliance with Maximilian of Austria, and soon married him by proxy (December 1489). But Maximilian was incapable of defending her, and in 1491 the young duchess found herself compelled to treat with Charles VIII. and to marry him. The two sovereigns made a reciprocal arrangement as to their rights and pretensions to the crown of Brittany, but in the event of Charles predeceasing her, Anne undertook to many the heir to the throne. Nevertheless, in 1492, after the conspiracy of Jean de Rohan, who had endeavoured to hand over the duchy to the king of England, Charles VIII. confirmed the privileges of Brittany, and in particular guaranteed to the Bretons the right of pay ing only those taxes to which the assembly of estates consented. After the death of Charles VIII. in 1498, without any children, Anne exercised the sovereignty in Brittany, and in January 1499 she married Louis XII., who had just repudiated Joan of France. The marriage contract was ostensibly directed in favour of the independence of Brittany, for it declared that Brittany should revert to the second son or to the eldest daughter of the two sovereigns, and, failing issue, to the natural heirs of the duchess. Until her death Anne occupied herself personally with the administration of the duchy. In 1504 she caused the treaty of Blois to be concluded, which assured the hand of her daughter, Claude of France, to Charles of Austria (the future emperor, CharlesV .), and promised hi m the possession of Bri ttany .Burgundy and the county of Blois. But this unpopular treaty was broken, and the queen had to consent to the betrothal of Claude to Francis of Angouleme, who in 1515 became king of France a* Francis I. Thus the definitive reunion of Brittany and France was prepared. See A. de la Borderie. Choi* dt documenti intdtti lur U repu it U duckeise Aunt en Bretagne (Kennr*. 1866 and I ooa)— extracts from the Aitmotres de la SotteU Anheolopaut du departrmenl d lUe-tt- Vilaine. voU. jv. and vi. (1866 and 1868); Lrroux de Lincy. Vied* la trine Anne de Bretafnt (1860-1861); A. Dupuv, La Reunion de la Brelagne d la France (1880); A. de U Bordcne, La Bretatne an* derniers tiiclei du moytn dg» (1893). and La Brelagne aux tempi modfrnes (1894). (H. S».) ANNE OP CLEVES dsi5-«5S7). fourth wife of Henry MM king of England, daughter of John, duke of C'lcvcs, and Mary, only daughter of William, duke of Juliers, was born on the and of September 1515. Her father was the leader of the German Protestants, and the princess, after the death of Jane Seymour. was regarded by Cromwell as a suitable wife for Henry \ III She had been brought up in a narrow retirement, could speak no language but her own, had no looks, no accomplishments and no dowry, her only recommendations being her proficiency in needlework, and her meek and gentle temper. Nevertheless her picture, painted by Holbein by the king's command (now in the Louvre, a modern copy at Windsor), pleased Henry and the marriage was arranged, the treaty being signed on the 24th of September 1539. The princess landed at Deal on the 27th of December; Henry met her at Rochester on the ist of January 1 540, and was so much abashed at her appearance as to forget to present the gift he had brought for her, but nevertheless controlled himself sufficiently to treat her with courtesy. The next day he expressed openly his dissatisfaction at her looks; " she was no better than a Flanders mare. " The attempt to prove a pre-contract with the son of the duke of Lorraine broke down, and Henry was forced to resign himself to the sacrifice. On the wedding morning, however, the 6th of January 1 540, he declared that no earthly thing would have induced him to marry her but the fear of driving the duke of Cleves into the arms of the emperor. Shortly afterwards Henry had reason to regret the policy which had identified him so closely with the German Protestantism, and denied reconciliation with the emperor. Cromwell's fall was the result, and the chief obstacle to the repudiation of his wife being thus removed, Henry declared the marriage had not been and could not be consummated; and did not scruple to cast doubts on his wife's honour. On the 9th of July the marriage was declared null and void by convocation, and an act of parliament to the same effect was passed immedi- ately. Henry soon afterwards married Catherine Howard. On first hearing of the king's intentions, Anne swooned away, but on recovering, while declaring her case a very hard and sorrowful one from the great love which she bore to the king, acquiesced quietly in the arrangements made for her by Henry, by which she received lands to the value of £4000 a year, renounced the title of queen for that of the king's sister, and undertook not to leave the kingdom. In a letter to her brother, drawn up by Gardiner by the king's direction, she acknowledged the unreality of the marriage and the king's kindness and generosity. Anne spent the rest of her life happily in England at Richmond or Bletchingley, occasionally visiting the court, and being described as joyous as ever, and wearing new dresses every day! An attempt to procure her reinstalment on the disgrace of Catherine Howard failed, and there was no foundation for the report that she had given birth to a child of which Henry was the reputed father. She waspresent at the marriage of Henry with Catherine Parr and at the coronation of Mary. She died on the 28th of July 1557 at Chelsea, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. See Lives of the Queens of England, by A. Strickland. Hi. (1851): The Wives of Henry VIII., by M. Hume (1905); Henry VIII.. by A. F. Pollard (1905); Four Original Documents relating to Ike Marriage of Henry VIII. to A nne of Cletes, ed. by E. and G. Goldsmid (1886); for the pseudo Anne of Cleves see Allgrmeine deutscke Biopaphie, i. 467. (P. C. Y.) ANNE OP DENMARK (1574-1619), queen of James I. of England and VI. of Scotland, daughter of Ring Frederick II. of Denmark and Norway and of Sophia, daughter of Ulric HI., duke of Mecklenburg, was born on the 1 2th of December 1 574. On the 2Oth of August 1589, in spite of Queen Elizabeth's opposition, 7° ANNE OF FRANCE— ANNEALING she was married by proxy to King James, without dower, the alliance, however, settling definitely the Scottish claims to the Orkney and Shetland Islands. Her voyage to Scotland was interrupted by a violent storm — for the raising of which several Danish and Sccttish witches were burned or executed — which drove her on the coast of Norway, whither the impatient James came to meet her, the marriage taking place at Opslo (now Christiania) on the 23rd of November. The royal couple, after visiting Denmark, arrived in Scotland in May 1 590. The position of queen consort to a Scottish king was a difficult and perilous one, and Anne was attacked in connexion with various scandals and deeds of violence, her share in which, however, is supported by no evidence. The birth of an heir to the throne (Prince Henry) in 1594 strengthened her position and influence; but the young prince, much to her indignation, was immediately withdrawn from her care and entrusted to the keeping of the earl and countess of Mar at Stirling Castle; in 1595 James gave a written command, forbidding them in case of his death to give up the prince to the queen till he reached the age of eighteen. The king's intention was, no doubt, to secure himself and the prince against the unruly nobles, though the queen's Roman Catholic tendencies were probably another reason for his decision. Brought up a Lutheran, and fond of pleasure, she had shown no liking for Scottish Calvinism, and soon incurred rebukes on account of her religion, " vanity," absence from church, " night waking and balling." She had become secretly inclined to Roman Catholicism, and attended mass with the king's conniv- ance. On the death of Queen Elizabeth, on the 24th of March 1603, James preceded her to London. Anne took advantage of his absence to demand possession of the prince, and, on the " flat refusal " of the countess of Mar, fell into a passion, the violence of which occasioned a miscarriage and endangered her life. In June she followed the king to England (after distributing all her effects in Edinburgh among her ladies) with the prince and the coffin containing the body of her dead infant, and reached Windsor on the 2nd of July, where amidst other forms of good fortune she entered into the possession of Queen Elizabeth's 6000 dresses. On the 24th of July Anne was crowned with the king, when her refusal to take the sacrament according to the Anglican use created some sensation. She communicated on one occasion subsequently and attended Anglican service occasionally; but she received consecrated objects from Pope Clement VIII., continued to hear mass, and, according to Galluzzi, supported the schemes for the conversion of the prince of Wales and of England, and for the prince's marriage with a Roman Catholic princess, which collapsed on his death in 1612. She was claimed as a convert by the Jesuits.1 Nevertheless on her deathbed, when she was attended by the archbishop of Canterbury and the bishop of London, she used expressions which were construed as a declaration of Protestantism. Notwithstanding religious differences she lived in great harmony and affection with the king, latterly, however, residing mostly apart She helped to raise Buckingham to power in the place of Somerset, maintained friendly relations with him, and approved of his guidance and control of the king. In spite of her birth and family she was at first favourably inclined to Spain, disapproved of her daughter Elizabeth's marriage with the elector palatine, and supported the Spanish marriages for her sons, but subsequently veered round towards France. She used all her influence in favour of the unfortunate Raleigh, answering his petition to her for protection with a personal letter of appeal to Buckingham to save his life. " She carrieth no sway in state matters," however, it was said of her in 1605, " and, praeter rent uxoriam, hath no great reach in other affairs." " She does not mix herself up in affairs, though the king tells her anything she chooses to ask, and loves and esteems her."1 Her interest in state matters was only occasional, and secondary to the pre-occupations of court festivities, masks, progresses, dresses, jewels, which she much enjoyed; the court being, says Wilson — whose severity cannot 1 Fasti S. J., by P. Joannis Drews (pub. 1723), p. 160. * Col. of St. Pap.— Venetian, x. 513. entirely suppress his admiration — " a continued maskarado, where she and her ladies, like so many nymphs or Nereides, appeared ... to the ravishment of the beholders," and " made the night more glorious than the day." Occasionally she even joined in the king's sports, though here her only recorded exploit was her accidental shooting of James's " most principal and special hound," Jewel. Her extravagant expenditure, returned by Salisbury in 1605 at more than £50,000 and by Chamberlain at her death at more than £84,000, was unfavourably contrasted with the economy of Queen Elizabeth; in spite of large allowances and grants of estates which included Oatlands, Greenwich House and Nonsuch, it greatly exceeded her income, her debts in 1616 being reckoned at nearly £10,000, while her jewelry and her plate were valued at her death at nearly half a million. Anne died after a long illness on the 2nd of March 1619, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. She was generally regretted. The severe WMson, while rebuking her gaieties, allows that she was " a good woman," and that her character would stand the most prying investigation. She was intelligent and tactful, a faithful wife, a devoted mother and a staunch friend. Besides several children who died in infancy she had Henry, prince of Wales, who died in 1612, Charles, afterwards King Charles I., and Elizabeth, electress palatine and queen of Bohemia. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — See Dr A. W. Ward's article in the Diet, of Nat. Biography, with authorities; Lives of the Queens of England, by A. Strickland (1844), vii.; " Life and Reign of King James I.," by A. Wilson, in History of England (1706); Istoria del Granducato di Toscana, by R. Galluzzi (1781), lib. vi. cap. ii. ; Cal. of State Papers — Domestic and Venetian; Hist. MSS. Comm. Series, MSS. of Marq. of Salisbury, iii. 420, 438, 454, ix. 54; Harleian MSS. 5176, art. 22, 293, art. 106. Also see bibliography to the article on JAMES I. (P. C. Y.) ANNE OF FRANCE (1460-1522), dame de Beaujeu, was the eldest daughter of Louis XI. and Charlotte of Savoy. Louis XI. betrothed her at first to Nicholas of Anjou, and afterwards offered her hand successively to Charles the Bold, to the duke of Brittany, and even to his own brother, Charles of France. Finally she married Pierre de Beaujeu, a younger brother of the duke of Bourbon. Before his death Louis XI. entrusted to Pierre de Beaujeu and Anne the entire charge of his son, Charles VIII., a lad of thirteen; and from 1483 to 1492 the Beaujeus exercised a virtual regency. Anne was a true daughter of Louis XI. Energetic, obstinate, cunning and unscrupulous, she inherited, too, her father's avarice and rapacity. Although they made some concessions, the Beaujeus succeeded in main- taining the results of the previous reign, and in triumphing over the feudal intrigues and coalitions, as was seen from the meeting of the estates general in 1484, and the results of the " Mad War" (1485) and the war with Brittany (1488); and in spite of the efforts of Maximilian of Austria they concluded the marriage of Charles VIII. and Anne, duchess of Brittany (1491). But a short time afterwards the king disengaged -himself completely from their tutelage, to the great detriment of the kingdom. In 1488 Pierre de Beaujeu had succeeded to the Bourbonnais, the last great fief of France. He died in 1 503, but Anne survived him twenty years. From her establishments at Moulins and Chantelle in the Bourbonnais she continued henceforth vigorously to defend the Bourbon cause against the royal family. Anne's only daughter, Suzanne, had married in 1505 her cousin, Charles of Bourbon, count of Montpensier, the future constable; and the question of the succession of Suzanne, who died in 1521, was the determining factor of the treason of the constable de Bourbon (1523). Anne had died some months before, on the 1 4th of November 1522. See P. Pelicier, Essai sur le gouvernement de la Dame de Beaujeu (Chartres, 1882). (J- !•) ANNEALING, HARDENING AND TEMPERING. Annealing (from the prefix an, and the old English attan, to burn or bake; the meaning has probably also been modified from the French nieler, to enamel black on gold or silver, from the med. Lat. nigellare, to make black; cf. niello) is a process of treating a metal or alloy by heat with the object of imparting to it a certain condition of ductility, extensibility, or a certain grade of softness or hardness, with all that is involved in and follows from those ANNEALING conditions. The effect may be mechanical only, or a chemical change may take place also. Sometimes the causes are obvious, in other cases they are more or less obscure. But of the actual (acts, and the immense importance of this operation as well as of the related ones of tempering and hardening in shop processes, thrtv is no question. When the treatment is of a mechanical character only, there can be no reasonable doubt that the common belief is correct, namely, that the metallic crystals or fibres undergo a molecular rearrangement of some kind. When it is of a chemical character, the process is one of cementation, due to the occlusion of gases in the molecules of the metals. Numerous examples of annealing due to molecular rearrange- ment might be selected from the extensive range of workshop operations. The following arc a few only: — when a boiler- maker bends the edges of a plate of steel or iron by hammer blows (flanging), he does so in successive stages (heats), at each of which the plate has to be reheated, with inevitable cooling down during the time work is being done upon it. The result is that the plate becomes brittle over the parts which have been subjected to this treatment; and this brittleness is not uniformly distributed, but is localized, and is a source of weakness, inducing a liability to crack. If, however, the plate when finished is raised to a full red heat, and allowed to cool down away from access of cool air, as in a furnace, or underneath wood ashes, it resumes its old ductility. The plate has been annealed, and is as safe as it was before it was flanged. Again, when a sheet of thin metal is forced to assume a shape very widely different from its original plane aspect, as by hammering, or by drawing out in a press — a cartridge case being a familiar ex- ample— it is necessary to anneal it several times during the progress of the operation. Without such annealing it would never arrive at the final stage desired, but would become torn asunder by the extension of its metallic fibres. Cutting tools are made of steel having sufficient carbon to afford capacity for hardening. Before the process is performed, the condition in which the carbon is present renders the steel so hard and tough as to render the preliminary turning or shaping necessary in many cases (e.g. in milling cutters) a tedious operation. To lessen this labour, the steel is first annealed. In this case it is brought to a low red heat, and allowed to cool away from the air. It can then be machined with comparative ease and be subsequently hardened or tempered. When a metallic structure has endured long service a state of fatigue results. Annealing is, where practicable, resorted to in order to restore the original strength. A familiar illustration is that of chains which are specially liable to succumb to constant overstrain if continued for only a year or two. This is so well known that the practice is regularly adopted of annealing the chains at regular intervals. They are put into a clear hot furnace and raised to a low red heat, continued for a few hours, and then allowed to cool down in the furnace after the withdrawal of the source of heat. Before the annealing the fracture of a link would be more crystalline than afterwards. In these examples, and others of which these are typical, two conditions are essential, one being the grade of temperature, the other the cooling. The temperature must never be so high as to cause the metal to become overheated, with risk of burning, nor so low as to prevent the penetration of the substance with a good volume of heat. It must also be continued for sufficient time. More than this cannot be said. Each particular piece of work requires its own treatment and period, and nothing but experience of similar work will help the craftsman. The cooling must always be gradual, such as that which results from removing the source of heat, as by drawing a furnace fire, or covering with non-conducting substances. The chemical kind of annealing is specifically that employed in the manufacture of malleable cast iron. In this process, castings are made of white iron. — a brittle quality which has its carbon wholly in the combined state. These castings, when subjected to heat for a period of ten days or a fortnight, in closed boxes, in the presence of substances containing oxygen, become highly ductile. This change ii due to the absorption of the carbon by the oxygen in the cementing material, a comparatively pure soft iron being left behind. The result is that the originally hard, brittle castings after this treatment may be cut with a knife, and be bent double and twisted into spirals without fracturing. The distinction between hardening and tempering it one of degree only, and both are of an opposite character to annealing. Hardening, in the shop sense, signifies the making of a piece of steel about as hard as it can be made — " glass hard " — while tempering indicates some stage in an infinite range between tlu- fully hardened and the annealed or softened condition. As a matter of convenience only, hardening is usually a stage in ihe work of tempering. It is easier to harden first, and " let down " to the temper required, than to secure the exact beat for tempering by raising the material to it. This is partly due to the long established practice of estimating temperature by colour tints; but this is being rapidly invaded by new methods in which the temper heat is obtained in furnaces provided with pyrometers, by means of which exact heat regulation is readily secured, and in which the heating up is done gradually. Such furnaces are used for hardening balls for bearings, cams, small toothed wheels and similar work, as well as for tempering springs, milling cutters and other kinds of cutting tools. But for the cutting tools having single edges, as used in engineers' shops, the colour test is still generally retained. In the practice of hardening and tempering tools by colour, experience is the only safe guide. Colour tints vary with degrees of light; steels of different brands require different treatment in regard to temperature and quenching; and steels even of identical chemical composition do not always behave alike when tempered. Every fresh brand of steel has, therefore, to be treated at first in a tentative and experimental fashion in order to secure the best possible results. The larger the masses of steel, and the greater the disparity in dimensions of adjacent parts, the greater is the risk of cracking and distortion. Ex- cessive length and the presence of keen angles increase the difficulties of hardening. The following points have to be observed in the work of hardening and tempering. A grade of steel must be selected of suitable quality for the purpose for which it has to be used. There are a number of such grades, ranging from about ij to } % content of carbon, and each having its special utility. Overheating must be avoided, as that burns the steel and injures or ruins it. A safe rule is never to heat any grade of steel to a temperature higher than that at which experience proves it will take the temper required. Heat- ing must be regular and thorough throughout, and must therefore be slowly done when dealing with thick masses. Contact with sulphurous fuel must be avoided. Baths of molten alloys of lead and tin are used when very exact temperatures are required, and when articles have thick and thin parts adjacent. But the gas furnaces have the same advantages in a more handy form. Quenching is done in water, oil, or in various hardening mixtures, and sometimes in solids. Rain water is the principal hardening agent, but various saline compounds are often added to intensify its action. Water that has been long in use is preferred to fresh. Water is generally used cold, but in many cases it is warmed to about 80° F., as for milling cutters and taps, warmed water being less liable to crack the cutters than cold. Oil is preferred to water for small springs, for guns and for many cutters. Mer- cury hardens most intensely, because it does not evaporate, and so does lead or wax for the same reason; water evaporates, and in the spheroidal state, as steam, leaves contact with the steel. This is the reason why long and large objects are moved vertically about in the water during quenching, to bring them into contact with fresh cold water. There is a good deal of mystery affected by many of the hardeners, who are very particular about the composition of their baths, various oils and salts being used in an infinity of combinations. Many of these are the result of long and successful experience, some are of the nature of " fads." A change of bath may involve injury to the steel. The most difficult articles to ANNECY— ANNELIDA harden are springs, milling cutters, taps, reamers. It would be easy to give scores of hardening compositions. Hardening is performed the more efficiently the more rapidly the quenching is done. In the case of thick objects, however, especially milling cutters, there is risk of cracking, due to the difference of temperature on the outside and in the central body of metal. Rapid hardening is impracticable in such objects. This is the cause of the distortion of long taps and reamers, and of their cracking, and explains why their teeth are often protected with soft soap and other substances. The presence of the body of heat in a tool is taken advantage of in the work of tempering. The tool, say a chisel, is dipped, a length of 2 in. or more being thus hardened and blackened. It is then removed, and a small area rubbed rapidly with a bit of grindstone, observations being made of the changing tints which gradually appear as the heat is communicated from the hot shank to the cooled end. The heat becomes equalized, and at the same time the approximate temperature for quenching for temper is estimated by the appearance of a certain tint; at that instant the article is plunged and allowed to remain until quite cold. For every different class of tool a different tint is required. " Blazing off " is a particular method of hardening applied to small springs. The springs are heated and plunged in oils, fats, or tallow, which is burned off previous to cooling in air, or in the ashes of the forge, or in oil, or water usually. They are hardened, reheated and tempered, and the tempering by blazing off is repeated for heavy springs. The practice varies almost infinitely with dimensions, quality of steel, and purpose to which the springs have to be applied. The range of temper for most cutting tools lies between a pale straw or yellow, and a light purple or plum colour. The corres- ponding range of temperatures is about 430° F. to 530° F., respectively. " Spring temper " is higher, from dark purple to blue, or 550° F. to 630° F. In many fine tools the range of temperature possible between good and poor results lies within from 5° to 10° F. There is another kind of hardening which is of a superficial character only — " case hardening." It is employed in cases where toughness has to be combined with durability of surface. It is a cementation process, practised on wrought iron and mild steel, and applied to the link motions of engines, to many pins and studs, eyes of levers, &c. The articles are hermetically luted in an iron box, packed with nitrogenous and saline substances such as potash, bone dust, leather cuttings, and salt. The box is placed in a furnace, and allowed to remain for periods of from twelve to thirty-six hours, during which period the surface of the metal, to a depth of fa to -fa in., is penetrated by the cement- ing materials, and converted into steel. The work is then thrown into water and quenched. A muffle furnace, empldyed for annealing, hardening and tempering is shown in fig. i ; the heat being obtained by means FIG. i. — Automatic Oil Muffle Furnace. of petroleum, which is contained in the tank A, and is kept under pressure by pumping at intervals with the wooden handle, so that when the valve B is opened the oil is vaporized by passing through a heating coil at the furnace entrance, and when ignited burns fiercely as a gas flame. • This passes into the furnace through the two holes, C, C, and plays under and up around the muffle D, standing on a fireclay slab. The doorway is closed by two fireclay blocks at E. A temperature of over 2000° F. can be obtained in furnaces of this class, and the heat is of course under perfect control. A reverberatory type of gas furnace, shown in fig. 2, differs from the oil furnace in having the flames brought down through the roof, by pipes A,A,A, playing on work laid on the fireclay slab B, thence passing under this and out through the elbow- I FIG. 2. — Reverberatory Furnace. pipe C. The hinged doors, D, give a full opening to the interior of the furnace. It will be noticed in both these furnaces (by Messrs Fletcher, Russell & Co., Ltd.) that the iron casing is a mere shell, enclosing very thick firebrick linings, to retain the heat effectively. (J. G. H.) ANNECY, the chief town of the department of Haute Savoie in France. Pop. (1906) 10,763. It is situated at a height of 1470 ft., at the northern end of the lake of Annecy, and is 25 m. by rail N.E. of Aix les Bains. The surrounding country presents many scenes of beauty. The town itself is a pleasant residence, and contains a i6th century cathedral church, an i8th century bishop's palace, a I4th-i6th century castle (formerly the resi- dence of the counts of the Genevois), and the reconstructed convent of the Visitation, wherein now reposes the body of St Francois de Sales (born at the castle of Sales, close by, in 1567; died at Lyons in 1622), who held the see from 1602 to 1622. There is also a public library, with 20,000 volumes, and various scientific collections, and a public garden, with a statue of the chemist Berthollet (1748-1822), who was born not far off. The bishop's see of Geneva was transferred hither in 1535, after the Reformation, but suppressed in 1801, though revived in 1822. There are factories of linen and cotton goods, and of felt hats, paper mills, and a celebrated bell foundry at Annecy le Vieux. This last-named place existed in Roman times. Annecy itself was in the loth century the capital of the counts of the Genevois, from whom it passed in 1401 to the counts of Savoy, and became French in 1860 on the annexation of Savoy. The LAKE or ANNECY is about 9 m. in length by 2 m. in breadth, its surface being 1465 ft. above the level of the sea. It discharges its waters, by means of the Thioux canal, into the Fier, a tributary of the Rhone. (W. A. B. C.) ANNELIDA, a name derived from J. B. P. Lamarck's term AnnMdes, now used to denote a major phylum or division of coelomate invertebrate animals. Annelids are segmented worms, and differ from the Arthropoda (q.v.), which they closely resemble in many respects, by the possession of a portion of the coelom traversed by the alimentary canal. In the latter respect, and in the fact that they frequently develop by a metamorphosis, they approach the Mollusca (q.v.), but they differ from that group notably in the occurrence of metameric segmentation affecting many of the systems of organs. The body-wall is highly muscular and, except in a few probably specialized cases, possesses chitinous spines, the setae, which are secreted by the ectoderm and are embedded in pits of the skin. They possess a modi- fied anterior end, frequently with special sense organs, forming a head, a segmented nervous system, consisting of a pair of anterior, dorsally-placed ganglia, a ring surrounding the ANNEX— ANNEXATION 73 alimentary canal, and a double ventral ganglionated chain, a ile innto vascular *y*tem, an excretory •yitem confuting of in l ihridia, and paired generative organ* formed from the coelomic epithelium. They are divided as follow*: (i) Haplodrili (?.».) or Archiannelida; (i) Chaetopoda (q.v.); (3) Myzostomida (?.».), probably degenerate Polychaeta; (4) Hirudinca (see CHAETOPODA and LEECH) ; (5) Echiuroidea (?.*.). (P. C. M.) ANNET. PETER (1603-1760), English deist, is said to have been born at Liverpool. A schoolmaster by profession, he became prominent owing to his attacks on orthodox theologians, and his membership of a semi-theological debating society, the Robin Hood Society, which met at the " Robin Hood and Little John " in Butcher Row. To him has been attributed a work called A History of tkt Man after God' sown Heart (1761), intended to show that George II. was insulted by a current comparison with David. The book is said to have inspired Voltaire's Saul. It is also attributed to one John Noorthouck (Noorthook). In 1 763 he was condemned for blasphemous libel in his paper called the Free Enquirer (nine numbers only). After his release he kept a small school in Lambeth, one of his pupils being James Stephen (1758- 1832), who became master in Chancery. Annet died on the i8th of January 1769. He stands between the earlier philosophic deists and the later propagandists of Paine's school, and " seems to have been the first free thought lecturer " (J. M. Robertson) ; his essays (.-1 Collection of the Tracts of a certain Free Enquirer, 1730-1745) are forcible but lack refinement. He invented a system of shorthand (and ed., with a copy of verses by Joseph Priestley). ANNEXATION (Lot. ad, to, and nexus, joining), in interna- tional law, the act by which a state adds territory to its dominions ; the term is also used generally as a synonym for acquisition. The assumption of a protectorate over another state, or of a sphere of influence, is not strictly annexation, the latter implying the complete displacement in the annexed territory of the government or state by which it was previously ruled. Annexation may be the consequence of a voluntary cession from one state to another, or of conversion from a protectorate or sphere of influence, or of mere occupation in uncivilized regions, or of conquest. The cession of Alsace-Lorraine to Germany by France, although brought about by the war of 1870, was for the purposes of interna- tional law a voluntary cession. Under the treaty of the 1 7th of December 1885, between the French republic and the queen of Madagascar, a French protectorate was established over this island. In 1896 this protectorate was converted by France into an annexation, and Madagascar then became " French territory." The formal annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina by Austria (Oct. 5, 1008) was an unauthorized conversion of an " occupation " authorized by the Treaty of Berlin (1878), which had, however, for years operated as a de facto annexation. A recent case of conquest was that effected by the South African War of 1800- 1902, in which the Transvaal republic and the Orange Free State were extinguished, first de facto by occupation of the whole of their territory, and then de jure by terms of surrender entered into by the Boer generals acting as a government. By annexation, as between civilized peoples, the annexing state takes over the whole succession with the rights and obligations attaching to the ceded territory, subject only to any modifying conditions contained in the treaty of cession. These, however, are binding only as between the parties to them. In the case of the annexation of the territories of the Transvaal republic and Orange Free State, a rather complicated situation arose out of the facts, on the one hand, that the ceding states closed their own existence and left no recourse to third parties against the previous ruling authority, and, on the other, that, having no means owing to the de facto British occupation, of raising money by taxation, the dispossessed governments raised money by selling certain securities, more especially a large holding of shares in the South African Railway Company, to neutral purchasers. The British government repudiated these sales as having been made by a government which the British government had already displaced. The question of at what point, in a war of conquest, the state succession becomes operative is one of great delicacy. As early as the 6th of January 1000, the high commitcioner at Cape To issued a proclamation giving notice that H. M. government would " not recognize as valid or effectual " any conveyance, trarufrr or transmission of any property made by the government of the Transvaal republic or Orange Free State subsequently to the loth of October 1809, the date of the commencement of the war. A proclamation forbidding transaction* with a »tate which might still be capable of maintaining it* independence could obviously bind only those subject to the authority of the state iMtiing it. Like paper blockades (see BLOCKADE) and fictitious occupation* of territory, such premature proclamations are viewed by interna- tional jurist* as not being jure gentium. The proclamation was succeeded, on the 9th of March 1900, by another of the high commissioner at Cape Town, reiterating the notice, but confining it to " lands, railways, mines or mining rights." And on the ist of September 1000 Lord Robert* proclaimed at Pretoria the annexation of the territories of the Transvaal republic to the British dominions. That the war continued for nearly two yean after this proclamation shows how fictitious the claim of annexa- tion was. The difficulty which arose out of the transfer of the South African Railway shares held by the Transvaal government was satisfactorily terminated by the purchase by the British government of the total capital of the company from the different groups of shareholders (see on this case, Sir Thomas Barclay, Lav Quarterly Review, July 1005; and Professor Westlake, in the same Review, October 1005). In a judgment of the judicial committee of the privy council in 1809 (Coote v. Sprigg, A.C. 572), Lord Chancellor Halsbury made an important distinction as regards the obligations of state succession. The case in question was a claim of title against the crown, represented by the government of Cape Colony. It was made by persons holding a concession of certain rights in eastern Pondoland from a native chief. Before the grantees had taken up their grant by acts of possession, Pondoland was annexed to Cape Colony. The colonial government refused to recognize the grant on different grounds, the chief of them being that the concession conferred no legal rights before the annexation and therefore could confer none afterwards, a sufficiently good ground in itself. The judicial committee, however, rested its decision chiefly on the allegation that the acquisition of the territory was an act of state and that " no municipal court had authority to enforce such an obligation " as the duty of the new government to respect existing tides. " It is no answer," said Lord Halsbury, " to say that by the ordinary principles of international law private property is respected by the sovereign which accepts the cession and assumes the duties and legal obligations of the former sovereign with respect to such private property within the ceded territory. All that can be meant by such a proposition is that according to the well-understood rules of international law a change of sovereignty by cession ought not to affect private property, but no municipal tribunal has authority to enforce such an obligation. And if there is either an express or a well-understood bargain between the ceding potentate and the government to which the cession is made that private property shall be respected, that is only a bargain which can be enforced by sovereign against sovereign in the ordinary course of diplomatic pressure." In an editorial note on this case the Law Quarterly Review of Jan. 1900 (p. i), dissenting from the view of the judicial committee that "no municipal tribunal has authority to enforce such an obligation," the writer observes that " we can read this only as meant to lay down that, on the annexation of territory even by peaceable cession, there is a total abeyance of justice until the will of the annexing power is expressly made known; and that, although the will of that power is commonly to respect existing private rights, there is no rule or presumption to that effect of which any court must or indeed can take notice." So construed the doctrine is not only contrary to international law, but according to so authoritative an exponent of the common law as Sir F. Pollock, there is no warrant for it in English common law. An interesting point of American constitutional law has arisen out of the cession of the Philippines to the United States, through the fact that the federal constitution does not lend itself to the 74 ANNICERIS— ANNONA exercise by the federal congress of unlimited powers, such as are vested in the British parliament. The sole authority for the powers of the federal congress is a written constitution with defined powers. Anything done in excess of those powers is null and void. The Supreme Court of the United States, on the other hand, has declared that, by the constitution, a government is ordained and established " for the United States of America " and not for countries outside their limits (Ross's Case, 140 U.S. 453, 464), and that no such power to legislate for annexed territories as that vested in the British crown in council is enjoyed by the president of the United States (Field v. Clark, 143 U.S. 649, 692). Every detail connected with the administration of the territories acquired from Spain under the treaty of Paris (December 10, 1898) has given rise to minute discussion. See Carman F. Randolph, Law and Policy of Annexation (New York and London, 1901); Charles Henry Butler, Treaty-making Power of the United States (New York, 1902), vol. i. p. 79 et seq. (T. BA.) ANNICERIS, a Greek philosopher of the Cyrenaic school. There is no certain information as to his date, but from the statement that he was a disciple of Paraebates it seems likely that he was a contemporary of Alexander the Great. A follower of Aristippus, he denied that pleasure is the general end of human life. To each separate action there is a particular end, namely the pleasure which actually results from it Secondly, pleasure is not merely the negation of pain, inasmuch as death ends all pain and yet cannot be regarded as pleasure. There is, however, an absolute pleasure in certain virtues such as belong to the love of country, parents and friends. In these relations a man will have pleasure, even though it may result in painful and even fatal consequences. Friendship is not merely for the satisfaction of our needs, but is in itself a source of pleasure. He maintains further, in opposition to most of the Cyrenaic school, that wisdom or prudence alone is an insufficient guarantee against error. The wise man is he who has acquired a habit of wise action; human wisdom is liable to lapses at any moment. Diogenes Laertius says that Anniceris ransomed Plato from Dionysius, tyrant of Syracuse, for twenty minas. If we are right in placing Anniceris in the latter half of the 4th century, it is clear that the reference here is to an earlier Anniceris, who, according to Aelian, was a celebrated charioteer. ANNING, MARY (1790-1847), English fossil-collector, the daughter of Richard Arming, a cabinet-maker, was born at Lyme Regis in May 1799. Her father was one of the earliest collectors and dealers in fossils, obtained chiefly from the Lower Lias in that famous locality. When but a child in 1811 she discovered the first specimen of Ichthyosaurus which was brought into scientific notice; in 1821 she found remains of a new saurian, the Pleswsaurus,iLnd in 1 8 28 she procured,f or the first time in England, remains of a pterodactyl (Dimorphodon). She died on the gth of March 1847. ANNISTON, a city and the county seat of Calhoun county, Alabama, U.S.A., in the north-eastern part of the state, about 63 m. E. by N. of Birmingham. Pop. (1800) 9998; (1900), 9695, of whom 3669 were of negro descent; (1910 census) 12,794. Anniston is served by the Southern, the Seaboard Air Line, and the Louisville & Nashville railways. The city is situated on the slope of Blue Mountain, a chain of the Blue Ridge, and is a health resort. It is the seat of the Noble Institute (for girls), established in 1886 by Samuel Noble (1834-1888), a wealthy iron-founder, and of the Alabama Presbyterian College for Men (1905). There are vast quantities of iron ore in the vicinity of the city, the Coosa coal-fields being only 25 m. distant. Anniston is an important manufacturing city, the principal industries being the manufacture of iron, steel and cotton. In 1905 the city's factory products were valued at $2,525,455. An iron furnace was established on the site of Anniston during the Civil War, but it was destroyed by the federal troops in 1865; and in 1872 it was rebuilt on a much larger scale. The city was founded in 1872 as a private enterprise, by the Woodstock Iron Company, organized by Samuel Noble and Gen. Daniel Tyler (1799-1882); but it was not opened for general settlement until twelve years later. It was chartered as a city in 1879. ANNO, or HANNO, SAINT (c. 1010-107 s),archbishop of Cologne, belonged to a Swabian family, and was educated at Bamberg. He became confessor to the emperor Henry III., who appointed him archbishop of Cologne in 1056. He took a prominent part in thegovernmentof Germany during the minorityof King Henry IV., and was the leader of the party which in 1062 seized the person of Henry, and deprived his mother, the empress Agnes, of power. For a short time Anno exercised the chief authority in the kingdom, but he was soon obliged to share this with Adalbert, archbishop of Bremen, retaining for himself the supervision of Henry's education and the title of magister. The office of chancellor of the kingdom of Italy was at this period regarded as an appanage of the archbishopric of Cologne,and this was probably the reason why Anno had a considerable share in settling the papal dispute in 1064. He declared Alexander II. to be the rightful pope at a synod held at Mantua in May 1064, and took other steps to secure his recognition. Returning to Germany, he found the chief power in the hands of Adalbert, and as he was disliked by the young king, he left the court but returned and regained some of his former influence when Adalbert fell from power in 1066. He succeeded in putting down a rising against his authority in Cologne in 1074, and it was reported he had allied himself with William the Conqueror, king of England, against the emperor. Having cleared himself of this charge, Anno took no further part in public business, and died at Cologne on the 4th of December 1075. He was buried in the monastery of Siegburg and was canonized in 1183 by Pope Lucius III. He was a founder of monasteries and a builder of churches, advocated clerical celibacy and was a strict disciplinarian. He was a man of great energy and ability, whose action in recognizing Alexander II. was of the utmost consequence for Henry IV. and for Germany. There is a Vita Annonis, written about lioo, by a monk of Sieg- burg, but this is of slight value. It appears in the Monumenta Germaniae historical Scriptores, Bd. xi. (Hanover and Berlin, 1826-1892). There is an "Epistola ad monachos Malmundarienses" by Anno in the Neues Archiv der Gesellschaft fur altere deutsche Geschichtskunde, Bd. xiv. (Hanover, 1876 seq.). See also the Annolied, or Incerti poetae Teutonics rhythmus de S. Annone, written about 1180, and edited by J. Kehrein (Frankfort, 1865); Th. Lindner, Anno II. der Heilige, Erzbischof von Koln (Leipzig, 1869). ANNOBON, or ANNO BOM, an island in the Gulf of Guinea, in i° 24' S. and 5° 35' E., belonging to Spain. It is no m. S.W. of St Thomas. Its length is about 4 m., its breadth 2, and its area 6J sq. m. Rising in some parts nearly 3000 ft. above the sea, it presents a succession of beautiful valleys and steep mountains, covered with rich woods and luxuriant vegetation. The inhabitants, some 3000 in number, are negroes and profess belief in the Roman Catholic faith. The chief town and residence of the governor is called St Antony (San Antonio de Praia). The roadstead is tolerably safe, and passing vessels take advantage of it in order to obtain water and fresh provisions, of which Annobon contains an abundant supply. The island was discovered by the Portuguese on the ist of January 1473, from which circumstance it received its name ( = New Year). Annobon, together with Fernando Po, was ceded to Spain by the Portuguese in 1 778. The islanders revolted against their new masters and a state of anarchy ensued, leading, it is averred, to an arrangement by which the island was adminis- tered by a body of five natives, each of whom held the office of governor during the period that elapsed till ten ships touched at the island. In the latter part of the igth century the authority of Spain was re-established. ANNONA (from Lat. annus, year), in Roman mythology, the personification of the produce of the year. She is represented in works of art, often together with Ceres, with a cornucopia (horn of plenty) in her arm, and a ship's prow in the back- ground, indicating the transport of grain over the sea. She frequently occurs on coins of the empire, standing between a modius (corn-measure) and the prow of a galley, with ears of corn in one hand and a cornucopia in the other; sometimes she holds a rudder or an anchor. The Latin word itself has various mean- ings: (i) the produce of the year's harvest; (2) all means of ANNONAY— ANNUITY 75 subsistence, especially grain stored in the public granaries (or provisioning the city; (3) the market |>ri. r of commodities, especially corn; (4) a direct tax in kind, levied in republican times in several provinces, chiefly employed in imperial times for distribution amongst officials and the support of the soldiery. In order to ensure a supply of corn sufficient to enable it to In- sold at a very low price, it was procured in large quantities from Umbria, Ktruria and Sicily. Almost down to the times of the empire, the care of the corn-supply formed part of the aedile's duties, although in 440 B.C. (if the statement in Livy iv. it, 13 is correct, which is doubtful) the senate appointed a special officer, called prarftitus annonae, with greatly extended powers. As a consequence of the second Punic War, Roman agriculture was at a standstill; accordingly, recourse was had to Sicily and Sardinia (the first two Roman provinces) in order to keep up the supply of corn; a tax of one- tenth was imposed on it, and its export to any country except Italy forbidden. The price at which the corn was sold was always moderate; the corn law of Gracchus (123 B.C.) made it absurdly low, and Clodius (58 B.C.) bestowed it gratuitously. The number of the recipients of this free gift grew so enormously, that both Caesar and Augustus were obliged to reduce it. From the time of Augustus to the end of the empire the number of those who were entitled to receive a monthly allowance of corn on presenting a ticket was 200,000. In the 3rd century, bread formed the dole. A praefectus annonac was appointed by Augustus to superintend the corn-supply; he was assisted by a large staff in Rome and the provinces, and had jurisdiction in all matters connected with the corn-market. The office lasted till the latest times of the empire. ANNONAY, a town of south-eastern France, in the north of the department of Ardeche, 50 m. S. of Lyons by the Paris-Lyons railway. Pop. (1006) 15,403. Annonay is built on the hill overlooking the meeting of the deep gorges of the Deomc and the Cance, the waters of which supply power to the factories of the town. By means of a dam across the Ternay, an affluent of the DWrae, to the north-west of the town, a reservoir is provided, in which an additional supply of water, for both industrial and domestic purposes, is stored. At Annonay there is an obelisk in honour of the brothers Montgolfier, inventors of the balloon, who were natives of the place. A tribunal of commerce, a board of trade-arbitrators, a branch of the Bank of France, and chambers of commerce and of arts and manufactures are among the public institutions. Annonay is the principal industrial centre of its department, the chief manufactures being those of leather, especially for gloves, paper, silk and silk goods, and flour. Chemical manures, glue, gelatine, brushes, chocolate and candles are also produced. ANNOY (like the French ennui, a word traced by etymologists to a Lat. phrase, in odio use, to be " in hatred " or hateful of someone), to vex or affect with irritation. In the sense of " nuisance," the noun " annoyance," apart from its obvious meaning, is found in the English " Jury of Annoyance " appointed by an act of 1754 to report upon obstructions in the highways. ANNUITY (from Lat. annus, a year), a periodical payment, made annually, or at more frequent intervals, either for a fixed term of years, or during the continuance of a given life, or a com- bination of lives. In technical language an annuity is said to be payable for an assigned status, this being a general word chosen in preference to such words as " time," " term " or " period," because it may include more readily either a term of years certain, or a life or combination of lives. The magnitude of the annuity is the sum to be paid (and received) in the course of each year. Thus, if £100 is to be received each year by a person, he is said to have " an annuity of £100." If the payments are made half-yearly, it is sometimes said that he has " a half-yearly annuity of £100 "; but to avoid ambiguity, it is more commonly said he has an annuity of £100, payable by half-yearly instal- ments. The former expression, if clearly understood, is prefer- able on account of its brevity. So we may have quarterly, monthly, weekly, daily annuities, when the annuity is payable by quarterly, monthly, weekly or daily instalments. An annuity is considered as accruing during each iruunt of the lUtut (or which it is enjoyed, although it u only payable at fixed interval*. If the enjoyment of an annuity is postponed until after the Up*e of a certain number of years, the annuity if said to be deferred. If an annuity, instead of being payable at the end of each year, half-year, &c., is payable in advance, it is called an annuity-due. If an annuity is payable for a term of yean independent of any contingency, it is called an annuity certain; if it is to con- tinue forever, it is called a perpetuity; and if in the latter case it is not to commence until after a term of years, it i* called a deferred perpetuity. An annuity depending on the continuance of an assigned life or lives, is sometimes called a life annuity; but more commonly the simple term " annuity " is understood to mean a life annuity, unless the contrary is stated. A life annuity, to cease in any event after a certain term of yean, is called a temporary annuity. The holder of an annuity is called an annuitant, and the person on whose life the annuity depends is called the nominee. If not otherwise stated, it is always understood that an annuity is payable yearly, and that the annual payment (or rent, as it is sometimes called) is £i. It is, however, customary to consider the annual payment to be, not £i, but simply i, the reader supplying whatever monetary unit he pleases, whether pound, dollar, franc, Thaler, &c. The annuity is the totality of the payments to be made (and received), and is so understood by all writers on the subject; but some have also used the word to denote an individual payment (or rent), speaking, for instance, of the first or second year's annuity, — a practice which is calculated to introduce confusion and should therefore be carefully avoided. Instances of perpetuities are the dividends upon the public stocks in England, France and some other countries. Thus, although it is usual to speak of £100 consols, the reality is the yearly dividend which the government pays by quarterly instal- ments. The practice of the French in this, as in many other matters, is more logical. In speaking of their public funds (rentes) they do not mention the ideal capital sum, but speak of the annuity or annual payment that is received by the public creditor. Other instances of perpetuities are the incomes derived from the debenture stocks of railway companies, also the feu- duties commonly payable on house property in Scotland. The number of years' purchase which the perpetual annuities granted by a government or a railway company realize in the open market, forms a very simple test of the credit of the various governments or railways. Terminable Annuities are employed in the system of British public finance as a means of reducing the National Debt (?.».). This result is attained by substituting for a perpetual annual charge (or one lasting until the capital which it represents can be paid off en bloc), an annual charge of a larger amount, but lasting for a short term. The latter is so calculated as to pay off, during its existence, the capital which it replaces, with interest at an assumed or agreed rate, and under specified conditions. The practical effect of the substitution of a terminable annuity for an obligation of longer currency is to bind the present genera- tion of citizens to increase its own obligations in the present and near future in order to diminish those of its successors. This end might be attained in other ways; for instance, by setting aside out of revenue a fixed annual sum for the purchase and cancellation of debt (Pitt's method, in intention), or by fixing the annual debt charge at a figure sufficient to provide a margin for reduction of the principal of the debt beyond the amount required for interest (Sir Stafford Northcote's method), or by providing an annual surplus of revenue over expenditure (the " Old Sinking Fund "), available for the same purpose. All these methods have been tried in the course of British financial history, and the second and third of them are still employed; but on the whole the method of terminable annuities has been the one preferred by chancellors of the exchequer and by parlia- ment. Terminable annuities, as employed by the British government, fall under two heads: — (a) Those issued to, or held by private 76 ANNUITY persons; (b) those held by government departments or by funds under government control. The important difference between these two classes is that an annuity under (a), once created, cannot be modified except with the holder's consent, i.e. is practically unalterable without a breach of public faith; whereas an annuity under (b) can, if necessary, be altered by inter- departmental arrangement under the authority of parliament. Thus annuities of class (a) fulfil most perfectly the object of the system as explained above; while those of class (b) have the advantage that in times of emergency their operation can be suspended without any inconvenience or breach of faith, with the result that the resources of government can on such occasions be materially increased, apart from any additional taxation. For this purpose it is only necessary to retain as a charge on the income of the year a sum equal to the (smaller) perpetual charge which was originally replaced by the (larger) terminable charge, whereupon the difference between the two amounts is temporarily released, while ultimately the increased charge is extended for a period equal to that for which it is suspended. Annuities of class (a) were first instituted in 1808, but are at present mainly regulated by an act of 1829. They may be granted either for a specified life, or two lives, or for an arbitrary term of years; ,and the consideration for them may take the form either of cash or of government stock, the latter being cancelled when the annuity is set up. Annuities (b) held by government departments date from 1863. They have been created in exchange for per- manent debt surrendered for cancellation, the principal opera- tions having been effected in 1863, 1867, 1870, 1874, 1883 and 1899. Annuities of this class do not affect the public at all, except of course in their effect on the market for government securities. They are merely financial operations between the government, in its capacity as the banker of savings banks and other funds, and itself, in the capacity of custodian of the national finances. Savings bank depositors are not concerned with the manner in which government invests their money, their rights being confined to the receipt of interest and the repayment of deposits upon specified conditions. The case is, however, different as regards forty millions of consols (included in the above figures), belonging to suitors in chancery, which were cancelled and replaced by a terminable annuity in 1883. As the liability to the suitors in that case was for a specified amount of stock, special arrangements were made to ensure the ultimate replacement of the precise amount of stock cancelled. Annuity Calculations. — The mathematical theory of life annuities is based upon a knowledge of the rate of mortality among mankind in general, or among the particular class of persons on whose lives the annuities depend. It involves a mathematical treatment too complicated to be dealt with fully in this place, and in practice it has been reduced to the form of tables, which vary in different places, but which are easily accessible. The history of the subject may, however, be sketched. Abraham Demoivre, in his Annuities on Lives, propounded a very simple law of mortality which is to the effect that, out of 86 children born alive, i will die every year until the last dies between the ages of 85 and 86. This law agreed sufficiently well at the middle ages of life with the mortality deduced from the best observations of his time; but, as observations became more exact, the approximation was found to be not sufficiently close. This was particularly the case when it was desired to obtain the value of joint life, contingent or other complicated benefits. Therefore Demoivre's law is entirely devoid of practical utility. No simple formula has yet been discovered that will represent the rate of mortality with sufficient accuracy. The rate of mortality at each age is, therefore, in practice usually determined by a series of figures deduced from observa- tion; and the value of an annuity at any age is found from these numbers by means of a series of arithmetical calculations. The mortality table here given is an example of modern use. The first writer who is known to have attempted to obtain, on correct mathematical principles, the value of a life annuity, was Jan De Witt, grand pensionary of Holland and West Friesland. Our knowledge of his writings on the subject is derived from two papers contributed by Frederick Hendriks to the Assurance Magazine, vol. ii. p. 222, and vol. iii. p. 93. The former of these contains a translation of De Witt's report upon the value of life annuities, which was prepared in consequence of the resolution passed by the states-general, on the 2$th of April 1671, to nego- tiate funds by life annuities, and which was distributed to the members on the 3oth of July 1671. The latter contains the translation of a number of letters addressed by De Witt to Burgomaster Johan Hudde, bearing dates from September 1670 to October 1671. The existence of De Witt's report was well known among his contemporaries, and Hendriks collected a number of extracts from various authors referring to it; but the TABLE OF MORTALITY — HM, HEALTHY LIVES — MALE. Number Living and Dying at each Age, out of 10,000 entering at Age 10. Age. Living. Dying. Age. Living. Dying. 10 10,000 79 54 6791 129 n 9,921 0 55 6662 '53 12 9,921 40 56 6509 150 13 9,881 35 57 6359 152 H 9,846 40 58 6207 156 15 9,806 22 59 6051 153 16 9.784 O 60 5898 184 17 9.784 4' 61 57'4 1 86 18 9.743 59 62 5528 191 19 9,684 68 63 5337 200 20 9,616 56 64 5137 206 21 9.560 67 65 493' 215 22 9.493 59 66 4716 220 23 9.434 73 67 4496 220 24 9.361 64 68 4276 237 25 9.297 48 69 4°39 246 26 9,249 64 7« 3793 213 27 9,i85 60 7i 358o 222 28 9.125 7« 72 3358 268 29 9,054 67 73 3090 243 30 8,987 74 74 2847 300 31 8,9«3 65 75 2547 241 32 8,848 74 76 2306 245 33 8.774 73 77 2061 224 34 8,701 76 78 1837 226 35 8,625 71 79 1611 219 36 8,554 75 80 1392 196 37 8,479 •l 81 1196 191 38 8,398 87 82 1005 '73 39 8,3" 88 83 832 172 40 8,223 81 84 660 119 4« 8,142 85 85 54i "7 42 8,057 87 86 424 92 43 7,970 84 87 332 72 44 7,886 93 88 260 74 45 7,793 97 89 1 86 36 46 7,696 96 90 'SO 34 47 7,600 107 91 116 36 48 7,493 106 92 80 36 49 7,387 "3 93 44 29 5° 7,274 1 20 94 15 o 51 7,154 124 95 15 5 52 7,030 120 96 10 10 53 6,910 119 report is not contained in any collection of his works extant, and had been entirely lost for 180 years, until Hendriks discovered it among the state archives of Holland in company with the letters to Hudde. It is a document of extreme interest, and (notwith- standing some inaccuracies in the reasoning) of very great merit, more especially considering that it was the very first document on the subject that was ever written. It appears that it had long been the practice in Holland for life annuities to be granted to nominees of any age, in the con- stant proportion of double the rate of interest allowed on stock; that is to say, if the towns were borrowing money at 6 %, they would be willing to grant a life annuity at 12%, and so on. De Witt states that " annuities have been sold, even in the present century, first at six years' purchase, then at seven and eight; and that the majority of all life annuities now current at the country's expense were obtained at nine years' purchase "; but that the price had been increased in the course of a few years from eleven years' purchase to twelve, and from twelve to ANNUITY 77 fourteen. He also states that the rate of interest had been successively reduced from 6} to 5 %, and then to 4 %• The principal object of hi* report is to prove that, taking interest at a life annuity was worth at least sixteen years' purchase; and, in fact, that an annuitant purchasing an annuity for the lift- of a young and healthy nominee at sixteen years' purchase, made an excellent bargain. It may be mentioned that he argues that it is more to the advantage, both of the country and of the private investor, that the public loans should be raised by way of grant of life annuities rather than perpetual annuities. It appears conclusively from DC Witt's correspondence with Hudde, that the rate of mortality assumed as the basis of his calculations was deduced from careful examination of the mortality that had actually prevailed among the nominees on whose lives annuities had been granted in former years. De Witt appears to have come to the conclusion that the probability of death is the same in any half-year from the age of 3 to 53 inclusive; that in the next ten years, from S3 to 63, the probability is greater in the ratio of 3 to 2; that in the m-xt ten years, from 63 to 73, it is greater in the ratio of 2 to i ; and in the next seven years, from 73 to So, it is greater in the ratio of 3 to I ; and he places the limit of human life at So. If a mortality table of the usual form is deduced from these suppositions, out of 212 persons alive at the age of 3, 2 will die every year up to 53, 3 in each of the ten years from 53 to 63, 4 in each of the next ten years from 63 to 73. and 6 in each of the next seven years from 73 to So, when all will be dead. De Witt calculates the value of an annuity in the following way. Assume that annuities on 10,000 lives each ten years of age, which satisfy the Hm mortality table, have been purchased. Of these nominees 79 will die before attaining the age of xi, and no annuity payment will be made in respect of them; none will die between the ages of n and 12, so that annuities will be paid for one year on 9921 lives; 40 attain the age of 12 and die before 13, so that two payments will be made with respect to these lives. Reasoning in this way we see that the annuities on 35 of the nominees will be payable for three years; on 40 for four years, and so on. Proceeding thus to the end of the table, 15 nominees attain the age of 95, 5 of whom die before the age of 96, so that 85 payments will be paid in respect of these 5 lives. Of the survivors all die before attaining the age of 97, so that the annuities on these lives will be payable for 86 years. Having previously calculated a table of the values of annuities certain for every number of years up to 86, the value of all the annuities on the 10,000 nominees will be found by taking 40 times the value of an annuity for 3 years, 35 times the value of an annuity for 3 years, and so on — the last term being the value of :o annuities for 86 years — and adding them together; and the value of an annuity on one of the nominees will then be found by dividing by 10,000. Before leaving the subject of De Witt, we may mention that we find in the corre- spondence a distinct suggestion of the law of mortality that bears the name of Demoivre. In De Witt's letter, dated the 27th of October 1671 (Ass. Mag. vol. iii. p. 107), he speaks of a " provisional hypothesis " suggested by Hudde, that out of So young lives (who, from the context, may be taken as of the age 6) about i dies annually. In strictness, therefore, the law in question might be more correctly termed Hudde's than Demoivre's. De Witt's report being thus of the nature of an unpublished state paper, although it contributed to its author's reputation, did not contribute to advance the exact knowledge of the subject; and the author to whom the credit must be given of first showing how to calculate the value of an annuity on correct principles is Edmund Halley. He gave the first approximately correct mortality table (deduced from the records of the numbers of deaths and baptisms in the city of Breslau), and showed how it might be employed to calculate the value of an annuity on the life of a nominee of any age (see Phil. Trans. 1693; Ass. Mag. vol. xviii.). Previously to Halley's time, and apparently for many years subsequently, all dealings with life annuities were based upon mere conjectural estimates. The earliest known reference to any estimate of the value of life annuities rose out of the require- ments of the Falcidian law, which (40 B.C.) was adopted in the Roman empire, and which declared that a tesutor should not give more than three-fourths of his property in legacies, so that at least one-fourth must go to his legal representatives. It is easy to see how it would occasionally become necessary, while this law was in force, to value life annuities charged upon a testator's estate. Aemilius Maccr (A.D. 230) states that the method which had been in common use at that time was as follows: — From the earliest age until 30 take 30 years' purchase, and for each age after 30 deduct i year. It is obvious that no consideration of compound interest can have entered into this estimate; and it is easy to see that it is equivalent to assuming that all persons who attain the age of 30 will certainly live to the age of 60, and then certainly die. Compared with this esti- mate, that which was propounded by the praetorian prefect Ulpian was a great improvement. His table is as follows: — Age. Years' Purchase. Age. Years' Purchase. Birth to 20 3» 45 1046 >4 30 35 28 46 .. 47 13 25 30 30 35 *5 22 47 - 48 48-49 12 II 35 4<> 2O 49 .. 50 10 40 41 41 42 4* 43 43 44 19 if 17 16 5» » 55 55 "60 to and . upwards* 9 7 5 44 45 15 Here also we have no reason to suppose that the element of interest was taken into consideration; and the assumption, that between the ages of 40 and 50 each addition of a year to the nominee's age diminishes the value of the annuity by one year's purchase, is equivalent to assuming that there is no probability of the nominee dying between the ages of 40 and 50. Con- sidered, however, simply as a table of the average duration of life, the values are fairly accurate. At all events, no more correct estimate appears to have been arrived at until the dose of the 1 7th century. The mathematics of annuities has been very fully treated in Demoivre's Treatise on Annuities (1725); Simpson's Doctrine of Annuities and Reversions (1742); P. Gray, Tahiti and Formulae; Bully's Doctrine of Life Annuities; there are also innumerable compilations of Valuation Tables and Interest Tables, by means of which the value of an annuity at any age and any rate of interest may be found. See also the article INTEREST, and especially that on INSURANCE. Commutation tables, aptly so named in 1840 by Augustus De Morgan (see his paper " On the Calculation of Single Life Contingencies," Assurance Magazine, xii. 328), show the propor- tion in which a benefit due at one age ought to be changed, so as to retain the same value and be due at another age. The earliest known specimen of a commutation table is contained in William Dale's Introduction to the Study of the Doctrine of Annuities, published in 1772. A full account of this work is given by F. Hendriks in the second number of the Assurance Magazine, pp. 15-17. William Morgan's Treatise on Assurances, 1779, also contains a commutation table. Morgan gives the table as furnishing a convenient means of checking the correct- ness of the values of annuities found by the ordinary process. It may be assumed that he was aware that the table might be used for the direct calculation of annuities; but he appears to have been ignorant of its other uses. The first author who fully developed the powers of the table was John Nicholas Tetens, a native of Schleswig, who in 1785, while professor of philosophy and mathematics at Kiel, published in the German language an Introduction to Ike Calculation of Life Annuities and Assurances. This work appears to have been quite unknown in England until F. Hendriks gave, in the first number of the Assurance Magazine, pp. 1-20 (Sept. 1850), an account of it, with a translation of the passages describing the construction and use of the commutation table, and a sketch 78 ANNULAR— ANNUNZIO of the author's life and writings, to which we refer the reader who desires fuller information. It may be mentioned here that Tetens also gave only a specimen table, apparently not imagining that persons using his work would find it extremely useful to have a series of commutation tables, calculated and printed ready for use. The use of the commutation table was independently developed in England — apparently between the years 1788 and 1811 — by George Barrett, of Petworth, Sussex, who was the son of a yeoman farmer, and was himself a village schoolmaster, and afterwards farm steward or bailiff. It has been usual to consider Barrett as the originator in England of the method of calculating the values of annuities by means of a commutation table, and this method is accordingly sometimes called Barrett's method. (It is also called the commutation method and the columnar method.) Barrett's method of calculating annuities was ex- plained by him to Francis Baily in the year 1811, and was first made known to the world in a paper written by the latter and read before the Royal Society in 1812. By what has been universally considered an unfortunate error of judgment, this paper was not recommended by the council of the Royal Society to be printed, but it was given by Baily as an appendix to the second issue (in 1813) of his work on life annuities and assurances. Barrett had calculated exten- sive tables, and with Baily's aid attempted to get them published by subscription, but without success; and the only printed tables calculated according to his manner, besides the specimen tables given by Baily, are the tables contained in Babbage's Comparative View of the various Institutions for the Assurance of Lives, 1826. In the year 1825 Griffith Davies published his Tables of Life Contingencies, a work which contains, among others, two tables, which are confessedly derived from Baily's explanation of Barrett's tables. Those who desire to pursue the subject further can refer to the appendix to Baily's Life Annuities and Assurances, De Morgan's paper " On the Calculation of Single Life Contingencies," Assurance Magazine, xii. 348-349; Gray's Tables and Formulae, chap, yiii.; the preface to Davies's Treatise on Annuities; also Hendriks's papers in the Assurance Magazine, No. I, p. I, and No. 2, p. 12; and in particular De Morgan's " Account of a Correspondence between Mr George Barrett and Mr Francis Baily," in the Assurance Magazine, vol. iv. p. 185. The principal commutation tables published in England are contained in the following works: — David Jones, Value of Annuities and Reversionary Payments, issued in parts by the Useful Knowledge Society, completed in 1843; Jenkin Jones, New Rate of Mortality, 1843; G. Davies, Treatise on Annuities, 1825 (issued 1855); David Chisholm, Commutation Tables, 1858; Nelson's Contributions to Vital Statistics, 1857; Jardine Henry, Government Life Annuity Commutation Tables, 1866 and 1873; Institute of Actuaries Life Tables, 1872; R. P. Hardy, Valuation Tables, 1873; and Dr William Fair's contributions to the sixth (1844), twelfth (1849), and twentieth (1857) Reports of the Registrar General in England (English Tables, 1,2), and to the English Life Table, 1864. The theory of annuities may be further studied in the discussions in the English Journal of the Institute of Actuaries. The institute was founded in the year 1848, the first sessional meeting being held in January 1849. Its establishment has contributed in various ways to promote the study of the theory of life contingencies. Among these may be specified the following: — Before it was formed, students of the subject worked for the most part alone, and without any concert; and when any person had made an improvement in the theory, it had little chance of becoming publicly known unless he wrote a formal treatise on the whole subject. But the formation of the institute led to much greater interchange of opinion among actuaries, and afforded them a ready means of making known to their professional associates any improvements, real or supposed, that they thought they had made. Again, the discussions which follow the reading of papers before the institute have often served, first, to bring out into bold relief differences of opinion that were previously unsuspected, and afterwards to soften down those differ- ences,— to correct extreme opinions in every direction, and to bring about a greater agreement of opinion on many important subjects. In no way, probably, have the objects of the institute been so effectually advanced as by the publication of its Journal. The first number of this work, which was originally called the Assurance Magazine, appeared in September 1850, and it has been continued quarterly down to the present time. It was originated by the public spirit of two well-known actuaries (Mr Charles Jellicoe and Mr Samuel Brown), and was adopted as the organ of the Institute of Actuaries in the year 1852, and called the Assurance Magazine and Journal of the Institute of Actuaries, Mr Jellicoe continuing to be the editor, — a post he held until the year 1867, when he was succeeded by Mr T. B. Sprague (who contributed to the 9th edition of this Encyclopaedia an elaborate article on " Annuities," on which the above account is based). The name was again changed in 1866, the words " Assurance Magazine " being dropped; but in the following year it was considered desirable to resume these, for the purpose of showing the continuity of the publication, and it is now called the Journal of the Institute of Actuaries and Assurance Magazine. This work contains not only the papers read before the institute (to which have been appended of late years short abstracts of the discussions on them), and many original papers which were unsuitable for reading, together with correspondence, but also reprints of many papers published elsewhere, which from various causes had become difficult of access to the ordinary reader, among which may be specified various papers which originally appeared in the Philosophical Transactions, the Philosophical Magazine, the Mechanics' Magazine, and the Companion to the Almanac; also translations of various papers from the French, German, and Danish. Among the useful objects which the continuous publication of the Journal of the institute has served, we may specify in particular two: — that any supposed improvement in the theory was effectually submitted to the criticisms of the whole actuarial profession, and its real value speedily discovered; and that any real improvement, whether great or small, being placed on record, successive writers have been able, one after the other, to take it up and develop it, each com- mencing where the previous one had left off. ANNULAR, ANNULATE, &c. (Lat. annulus, a ring), ringed. " Annulate " is used in botany and zoology in connexion with certain plants, worms, &c. (see ANNELIDA), either marked with rings or composed of ring-like segments. The word " annulated " is also used in heraldry and architecture. An annulated cross is one with the points ending in an "annulet " (an heraldic ring, supposed to be taken from a coat of mail), while the annulet in architecture is a small fillet round a column, which encircles the lower part of the Doric capital immediately above the neck or trachelium. The word "annulus" (for "ring") is itself used tech- nically in geometry, astronomy, &c., and the adjective " annular " corresponds. An annular space is that between an inner and ou ter ring. The annular finger is the ring finger. An annular eclipse is, an eclipse of the sun in which the visible part of the latter com- pletely encircles the dark body of the moon; for this to happen, the centres of the sun and moon, and the point on the earth where the observer is situated, must be collinear. Certain nebulae having the form of a ring are also called "annular." ANNUNCIATION, the announcement made by the angel Gabriel to the Virgin Mary of the incarnation of Christ (Luke i. 26-38). The Feast of the Annunciation in the Christian Church is celebrated on the 2$th of March. The first authentic allusions to it are in a canon of the council of Toledo (656), and another of the council of Constantinople " in Trullo " (692), forbidding the celebration of all festivals in Lent, excepting the Lord's day and the Feast of the Annunciation. An earlier origin has been claimed for it on the ground that it is mentioned in sermons of Athanasius and of Gregory Thaumaturgus, but both of these documents are now admitted to be spurious. A synod held at Worcester, England (1240), forbade all servile work on this feast day. See further LADY DAY. ANNUNZIO, GABRIELE D' (1863 ), Italian novelist and poet, of Dalmatian extraction, was born at Pescara (Abruzzi) in 1863. The first years of his youth were spent in the freedom of the open fields; at sixteen he was sent to school in Tuscany. While still at school he published a small volume of verses called Primo Vere (1879), in which, side by side with some almost brutal imitations of Lorenzo Stecchetti, the then fashionable poet of Postuma, were some translations from the Latin, dis- tinguished by such agile grace that Giuseppe Chiarini on reading them brought the unknown youth before the public in an enthusi- astic article. The young poet then went to Rome, where he was received as one of their own by the Cronaca Bizantina group (see CARDUCCI). Here he published Canto Nuovo (1882), Terra Vergine (1882), L' Intermezzo di Rime (1883), // Libra delle Vergini (1884), and the greater part of the short stories that were afterwards collected under the general title of San Pantaleone (1886). In Canto Nuovo we have admirable poems full of pulsating youth and the promise of power, some descriptive ANO A— ANOINTING 79 of the »ca and some of the Abruizi landscape, commented on and cumplriril in prose by Terra Vtrfine, the latter a collection of short atones dealing in radiant language with the peasant life of the author's native province. With the Intermato di Rime we have the beginning of cl'Annunzio's second and characteristic manner. His conception of style was new, and he chose to express all the most subtle vibrations of voluptuous life. Both style and contents began to startle his critics; some who had greeted him as an enfant firodige — Chiarini amongst others — rejected him as a perverter of public morals, whilst others hailed him as one bringing a current of fresh air and the impulse of a new vitality into the somewhat prim, lifeless work hitherto produced. Meanwhile the Review of Angelo Sommaruga perished in the midst of scandal, and his group of young authors found itself dispersed. Some entered the teaching career and were lost to literature, .others threw themselves into journalism. Gabriele d'Annunzio took this latter course, and joined the staff of the Tribuna. For this paper, under the pseudonym of " Duca Minimo," he did some of his most brilliant work, and the articles he wrote during that period of originality and exuberance would well repay being collected. To this period of greater maturity and deeper culture belongs // Libra d' Isolla (1886), a love poem, in which for the first time he drew inspiration adapted to modern sentiments and passions from the rich colours of the Renaissance. // Libra d' Isolia is interesting also, because in it we find most of the germs of his future work, just as in Intrrmaso meiico and in certain ballads and sonnets we find descriptions and emotions which later went to form the aesthetic contents of // Piacere, II Trionfo delia Morte, and Elegie Romane (1892). D' Annunzio's first novel // Piacere (1889) — translated into English as The Child of Pleasure — was followed in 1891 by L' Innocente (The Intruder), and in 1892 by Giovanni Episcopo. These three novels created a profound imp. ession. L' Innocente, admirably translated into French by Georges Herelle, brought its author the notice and applause of foreign critics. His next work, // Trionfo della Morte (The Triumph of Death) (1894), was followed at a short distance by Le Vergini delta Roccio (1896) and // Fuoco (1900), which in its descriptions of Venice is perhaps the most ardent glorification of a city existing in any language. D' Annunzio's poetic work of this period, in most respects his finest, is represented by // Poema Paradisiaco (1893), the Odi Navali (1893), a superb attempt at civic poetry, and Laudi (1000). A later phase of d' Annunzio's work is his dramatic production, represented by II Sogno di un mattino di primavera (1897), a lyrical fantasia in one act; his Cilia Morla (1898), written for Sarah Bernhardt, which is certainly among the most daring and original of modern tragedies, and the only one which by its unity, persistent purpose, and sense of fate seems to continue in a measure the traditions of the Greek theatre. In 1808 he wrote his Sogno di un Pomeriggio d' A utunno and La Gioconda; in the succeeding year La Gloria, an attempt at contemporary political tragedy which met with no success, probably through the audacity of the personal and political allusions in some of its scenes; and then Francesca da Rimini (1901), a perfect reconstruction of medieval atmosphere and emotion, magnificent in style, and declared by one of the most authoritative Italian critics — Edoardo Boutet — to be the first real although not perfect tragedy which has ever been given to the Italian theatre. The work of d' Annunzio, although by many of the younger generation injudiciously and extravagantly admired, is almost the most important literary work given to Italy since the days when the great classics welded her varying dialects into a fixed language. The psychological inspiration of his novels has come to him from many sources — French, Russian, Scandinavian, German — and in much of his earlier work there is little fundamental originality. His creative power is intense and searching, but narrow and personal; his heroes and heroines are little more than one same type monotonously facing a different problem at a different phase of life. But the f lulUessness of his style and the wealth of hi* language have been approached by none of his conlemporarirs, whom hi* genius ha* toniewhat paralysed. In his later work, when he begin* drawing hi* inspira- tion from the tradition* of bygone Italy in her glorious centuries, a current of real life teem* to run through the vein* of hi* personages. And the lasting merit of d' Annunzio, hi* real value to the literature of hi* country, consist* precisely in that be opened up the closed mine of it* former life a* a source of inspiration for the present and of hope for the future, and created a language, neither pompous nor vulgar, drawn from every source and diilm t suited to the requirements of modern thought, yet absolutely classical, borrowed from none, and, independently of the thought it may be used to express, a thing of intrinsic beauty. As his sight became clearer and his purpose strengthened, as ex- aggerations, affectations, and moods dropped away from hi* con- ceptions, his work became more and more typical! Latin work, upheld by the ideal of an Italian Renaissance. ANOA, the native name of the small wild buffalo of Celebes, Bos (Bubalus) depressicornis, which stands but little over a yard at the shoulder, and is the most diminutive of all wild cattle. It is nearly allied to the larger Asiatic buffaloes, knowing the same reversal of the direction of the hair on the back. The horns are peculiar for their upright direction and comparative straightness, although they have the same triangular section as in other buffaloes. White spots are sometimes present below the eyes, and there may be white markings on the legs and back; and the absence or presence of these white markings may be indicative of distinct races. The horns of the cows are very small. The nearest allies of the anoa appear to be certain extinct buffaloes, of which the remains are found in the Siwalik Hills of northern India. In habits the animal appears to resemble the Indian buffalo. ANODYNE (from Gr. &»-, privative, and bovrq, pain), a cause which relieves pain. The term is commonly applied to medicines which lessen the sensibility of the brain or nervous system, such as morphia, &c. ANOINTING, or greasing with oil, fat, or melted butter, a process employed ritually in all religions and among all races, civilized or savage, partly as a mode of ridding persons and things of dangerous influences and diseases, especially of the demons (Persian drug, Greek Krjpts. Armenian dev) which are or cause those diseases; and partly as a means of introducing into things and persons a sacramental or divine influence, a holy emanation, spirit or power. The riddance of an evil influence is often synonymous with the introduction of the good principle, and therefore it is best to consider first the use of anointing in consecrations. The Australian natives believed that the virtues of one killed could be transferred to survivors if the latter nibbed themselves with his caul-fat. So the Arabs of East Africa anoint themselves with lion's fat in order to gain courage and inspire the animals with awe of themselves. Such rites are often associated with the actual eating of the victim whose virtues are coveted. Human fat is a powerful charm all over the world; for, as R. Smith points out, after the blood the fat was peculiarly the vehicle and seat of life. This is why fat of a victim was smeared on a sacred stone, not only in acts of homage paid to it, but in the actual consecration thereof. In such cases the influence of the god, communicated to the victim, passed with the unguent into the stone. But the divinity could by anointing be transferred into men no less than into stones; and from immemorial an- tiquity, among the Jews as among other races, kings were anointed or greased, doubtless with the fat of the victims which, like the blood, was too holy to be eaten by the common votaries. Butter made from the milk of the cow, the most sacred of animals, is used for anointing in the Hindu religion. A newly- built house is smeared with it, so are demoniacs, care being taken to smear the latter downwards from head to foot. In the Christian religion, especially where animal sacrifices, together with the cult of totem or holy animals, have been given up, it is usual to hallow the oil used in ritual anointings with 8o ANOMALY— ANQUETIL DUPERRON special prayers and exorcisms; oil from the lamps lit before the altar has a peculiar virtue of its own, perhaps because it can be burned to give light, and disappears to heaven in doing so. In any case oil has ever been regarded as the aptest symbol and vehicle of the holy and illuminating spirit. For this reason the catechumens are anointed with holy oil both before and after baptism; the one act (of eastern origin) assists the expulsion of the evil spirits, the other (of western origin), taken in con- junction with imposition of hands, conveys the spirit and retains it in the person of the baptized. In the postbaptismal anointing the oil was applied to the organs of sense, to the head, heart, and midriff. Such ritual use of oil as a o~payis or seal may have been suggested in old religions by the practice of keeping wine fresh in jars and amphorae by pouring on a top layer of oil; for the spoiling of wine was attributed to the action of demons of corruption, against whom, many ancient formulae of aversion or exorcism still exist. The holy oil, chrism, or nvpov, as the Easterns call it, was prepared and consecrated on Maundy Thursday, and in the Gelasian sacramentary the formula used runs thus: " Send forth, O Lord, we beseech thee, thy Holy Spirit the Paraclete from heaven into this fatness of oil, which thou hast deigned to bring forth out of the green wood for the refreshing of mind and body; and through thy holy benediction may it be for all who anoint with it, taste it, touch it, a safeguard of mind and body, of soul and spirit, for the expulsion of all pains, of every infirmity, of every sickness of mind and body. For with the same thou hast anointed priests, kings, and prophets and martyrs with this thy chrism, perfected by thee, O Lord, blessed, abiding within our bowels in the name of our Lord Jesus Christ." In various churches the dead are anointed with holy oil, to guard them against the vampires or ghouls which ever threaten to take possession of dead bodies and live in them. In the Armenian church, as formerly in many Greek churches, a cross is not holy until the Spirit has been formally led into it by means of prayer and anointing with holy oil. A new church is anointed at its four comers, and also the altar round which it is built; similarly tombs, church gongs, and all other instruments and utensils dedicated to cultual uses. In churches of the Greek rite a little of the old year's chrism is left in the jar to communicate its sanctity to that of the new. (F. C. C.) ANOMALY (from Gr. dvu/iaXta, unevenness, derived from A*-, privative, and 6/naXos. even), a deviation from the common rule. In astronomy the word denotes the angular distance of a body from the pericentre of the orbit in which it is moving. Let AB be the major axis of the orbit, B the pericentre, F the focus or centre of motion, P the position of the body. The anomaly is then the angle BFP which the radius vector makes with the major axis. This is the actual or true anomaly. Mean anomaly is the anomaly which the body would have if it moved from the pericentre around F with a uniform angular motion such that its revolution would be completed in its actual time (see ORBIT). Eccentric anomaly is defined thus: — Draw the circumscribing circle of the elliptic orbit around the centre C of the orbit. Drop the perpendicular RPQ through P, the position of the planet, upon the major axis. Join CR; the angle CRQ is then the eccentric anomaly. In the ancient astronomy the anomaly was taken as the angular distance of the planet from the point of the farthest recession from the earth. Kepler's Problem, namely, that of finding the co-ordinates of a planet at a given time, which is equivalent — given the mean anomaly — to that of determining the true anomaly, was solved approximately by Kepler, and more completely by Wallis, Newton and others. The anomalistic revolution of a planet or other heavenly body is the revolution between two consecutive passages through the pericentre. Starting from the pericentre, it is completed on the return to the pericentre. If the pericentre is fixed, this is an actual revolution; but if it moves the anomalistic revolution is greater or less than a complete circumference. An Anomalistic year is the time (365 days, 6 hours, 13 minutes, 48 seconds) in which the earth (and similarly for any other planet) passes from perihelion to perihelion, or from any given value of the anomaly to the same again. Owing to the precession of the equinoxes it is longer than a tropical or sidereal year by 25 minutes and 2-3 seconds. An Anomalistic month is the time in which the moon passes from perigee to perigee, &c. For the mathematics of Kepler's problem see E. W. Brown, Lunar Theory (Cambridge 1896), or the work of Watson or of Bauschinger on Theoretical Astronomy. ANORTHITE, an important mineral of the felspar group, being one of the end members of the plagioclase (q.v.) series. It is a calcium and aluminium silicate, CaAljSizOg, and crystallizes in the anorthic system. Like all the felspars, it possesses two cleavages, one perfect and the other less so, here inclined to one another at an angle of 85° 50'. The colour is white, greyish or reddish, and the crystals are trans- parent to translucent. The hard- ness is 6-6^, and the specific gravity »-75- Anorthite is an essential con- stituent of many basic igneous rocks, such as gabbro and basalt, also of some meteoric stones. The best developed crystals are those which accompany mica, augite, sanidine, &c., in the ejected blocks of metamorphosed limestone from Monte Somma, the ancient portion of Mount Vesuvius; these are Anorthite. perfectly colourless and transparent, and are bounded by numerous brilliant faces. Distinctly developed crystals are also met with in the basalts of Japan, but are usually rare at other localities. The name anorthite was given to the Vesuvian mineral by G. Rose in 1823, on account of its anorthic crystallization. The species had, however, been earlier described by the comte de Bournon under the name indianite, this name being applied to a greyish or reddish granular mineral forming the matrix of corun- dum from the Carnatic in India. Several unimportant varieties have been distinguished. (L. J. S.) ANQUETIL, LOUIS PIERRE (1723-1808), French historian, was born in Paris, on the 2ist of February 1723. He entered the congregation of Sainte-Genevieve, where he took holy orders and became professor of theology and literature. Later, he became director of the seminary at Reims, where he wrote his Histoire civile et politique de Reims (3 vols., 1756-1757), perhaps his best work. He was then director of the college of Senlis, where he composed his Esprit de la Ligue ou histoire polilique des troubles de la Fronde pendant le XVI' et le XVII' siecles (1767). During the Reign of Terror he was imprisoned at St Lazare; there he began his Precis de I'histoire universelle, afterwards published in nine volumes. On the establishment of the national institute he was elected a member of the second group (moral and political sciences), and was soon afterwards employed in the office of the ministry of foreign affairs, profiting by his experience to write his Motifs des guerres et des traitts de paix sous Louis XI V. , Louis X V. et Louis XVI. He is said to have been asked by Napoleon to write his Histoire de France (14 vols., 1805), a mediocre compila- tion at second or third hand, with the assistance of de Mezeray and of Paul Francois Velly (1700-1759). This work, nevertheless, passed through numerous editions, and by it his name is remem- bered. He died on the 6th of September 1808. ANQUETIL DUPERRON, ABRAHAM HYACINTHE (1731- 1805), French orientalist, brother of Louis Pierre Anquetil, the historian, was born in Paris on the 7th of December 1731. He was educated for the priesthood in Paris and Utrecht, but his taste for Hebrew, Arabic, Persian, and other languages of the East ANSA— ANSELM developed into a passion, and he discontinued his theological course to devote himself entirely to them. His diligent attend •nee at the Royal Library attracted the attention of the keeper of the manuscripts, the Abbe Saltier, whose influence procured for him a small salary a* student of the oriental languages. He had lighted on some fragments of the Vendidad Sade, and formed thr project of a voyage to India to discover the worksof Zoroaster. With this end in view he enlisted as a private soldier, on the 2nd of November 1754, in the Indian expedition which was about to Mart from the port of L'Orient. His friends procured his dis- charge, and he was granted a free passage, a seat at the captain's table, and a salary, the amount of which was to be fixed by the governor of the French settlement in India. After a passage of six months, Anquetil landed, on the loth of August 1755, at Pondichcrry. Here he remained a short time to master modern Persian, and then hastened to Chandernagorc to acquire Sanskrit. Just then war was declared between France and England; Chandernagore was taken, and Anquetil returned to Pondicherry by land. He found one of his brothers at Pondicherry, and embarked with him for Surat; but, with a view of exploring the country, he landed at Mahe and proceeded on foot. At Surat he succeeded, by perseverance and address in his intercourse with the native priests, in acquiring a sufficient knowledge of the Zend and Pahlavi languages to translate the liturgy called the Vendidad Sade and some other works. Thence he proposed going to Benares, to study the language, antiquities, and sacred laws of the Hindus; but the capture of Pondicheny obliged him to quit India. Returning to Europe in an English vessel, he spent some time in London and Oxford, and then set out for France. He arrived in Paris on the I4th of March 1762 in possession of one hundred and eighty oriental manuscripts, besides other curiosities. The Abbe Barthelemy procured for him a pension, with the appointment of interpreter of oriental languages at the Royal Library. In 1 763 he was elected an associate of the Academy of Inscriptions, and began to arrange for the publication of the materials he had collected during his eastern travels. In 1 77 1 he published his Zend-Avesta (3 vols.). containing collections from the sacred writings of the fire- worshippers, a life of Zoroaster, and fragments of works ascribed to him. In 1778 he published at Amsterdam his Legislation oriental*, in which he endeavoured to prove that the nature of oriental despotism had been greatly misrepresented. His Recherches historiquts el gtogrophiques sur I'Inde appeared in 1786, and formed part of Thieffenthalcr's Geography of India. The Revolution seems to have greatly affected him. During that period he abandoned society, and lived in voluntary poverty on a few pence a day. In 1798 he published L'Inde en rapport avec I'Europe (Hamburg, z vols.), which contained much invective against the English, and numerous misrepresentations. In 1802-1804 he published a Latin transla- tion (2 vols.) from the Persian of the Oupnek'hat or Upanishada. It is a curious mixture of Latin, Greek, Persian, Arabic, and Sanskrit. He died in Paris on the I7th of January 1803. See Biorraphie unwerseUe; Sir William Jones, Works (vol. x., 1807); and the Miscellanies of the Philobiblon Society (vol. iii.. 1856-1857). For a list of his scattered writings see Querard, La France liUeraire. ANSA (from Lat. ansa, a handle), in astronomy, one of the apparent ends of the rings of Saturn as seen in perspective from the earth: so-called because, in the earlier telescopes, they looked like handles projecting from the planet. In anatomy the word is applied to nervous structures which resemble loops. In archaeology it is used for the engraved and ornamented handle of a vase, which has often survived when the vase itself, being less durable, has disappeared. ANSBACH, or ANSPACH, originally Onoltbach, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Bavaria, on the Rezat, 27 m. by rail S.W. of Nuremberg, and 90 m. N. of Munich. Pop. (1900) '7,555. It contains a palace, once the residence of the margraves of Anspach, with fine gardens; several churches, the finest of which are those dedicated to St John, containing the vault of the former margraves, and St Gumbert; a gymnasium; a picture gallery; a municipal museum and a special technical school. Ansbach possesses monuments to the poets August. Count von Platen-Hallermund, and Johann Peter U>, who were born here, and to Kupar Hauser, who died here. The chief manufactures are machinery, toys, woollen, cotton, and half -silk stuffs, embroideries, earthenware, tobacco, cutlery and playing cards. There is considerable trade in grain, wool and flax. In 1791 the last margrave of Anspach sold his principality to Frederick William II., king of Prussia; it was transferred by Napoleon to Bavaria in 1806, an act which was confirmed by the congress of Vienna in 1815. ANSDELU RICHARD (1815-1885), English painter, was born in Liverpool, and first exhibited at the Royal Academy in 1840. He was a painter of genre, chiefly animal and sporting pictures, and he became very popular, being elected A.R.A. in 1861 and R.A. in 1870. His "Stag at Bay" (1846), "The Combat " (1847), and " Battle of the Standard " (1848), repre- sent his best work, in which he showed himself a notable follower of Landseer. ANSELM (c. 1033-1109), archbishop of Canterbury, was born at Aosta in Piedmont. His family was accounted noble, and was possessed of considerable property. Gundulph, his father, was by birth a Lombard, and seems to have been a man of harsh and violent temper; his mother, Ermenberga, was a prudent and virtuous woman, from whose careful religious training the young Anselm derived much benefit. At the age of fifteen he desired to enter a convent, but he could not obtain his father's consent. Disappointment brought on an illness, on his recovery from which he seems for a time to have given up his studies, and to have plunged into the gay life of the world. During this time his mother died, and his father's harshness became unbearable. He left home, and with only one attendant crossed the Alps, and wandered through Burgundy and France. Attracted by the fame of his countryman, Lanfranc, then prior of Bee, be entered Normandy, and, after spending some time at Avranches, settled at the monastery of Bee. There, at the age of twenty- seven, he became a monk; three years later, when Lanfranc was promoted to the abbacy of Caen, he was elected prior. This office he held for fifteen years, and then, in 1078, on the death of Herlwin, the warrior monk who had founded the monastery, he was made abbot. Under his rule Bee became the first seat of learning in Europe, a result due not more to his intellectual powers than to the great moral influence of his noble character and kindly discipline. It was during these quiet years at Bee that Anselm wrote his first philosophical and re- ligious works, the dialogues on Truth and Freewill, and the two celebrated treatises, the Monologion and Proslogion. Meanwhile the convent had been growing in wealth, as well as in reputation, and had acquired considerable property in England, which it became the duty of Anselm occasionally to visit. By his mildness of temper and unswerving rectitude, he so endeared himself to the English that he was looked upon and desired as the natural successor to Lanfranc, then archbishop of Canterbury. But on the death of that great man, the ruling sovereign, William Rufus, seized the possessions and revenues of the see, and made no new appointment. About four yean after, in 1092, on the invitation of Hugh, earl of Chester, Anselm with some reluctance, for he feared to be made archbishop, crossed to England. He was detained by business for nearly four months, and when about to return, was refused permission by the king. In the following year William fell ill, and thought his death was at hand. Eager to make atonement for his sin with regard to the archbishopric, he nominated Anselm to the vacant see, and after a great struggle compelled him to accept the pastoral staff of office. After obtaining dispensation from his duties in Normandy, Anselm was consecrated in 1093. He demanded of the king, as the conditions of his retaining office, that he should give up all the possessions of the see, accept his spiritual counsel, and acknowledge Urban as pope in opposition to the anti-pope, Clement. He only obtained a partial consent to the first of these, and the last involved him in a serious difficulty with the king. It was a rule of the church that the consecration of metropolitans could not be completed without their receiving ANSELM the pallium from the hands of the pope. Anselm, accordingly, insisted that he must proceed to Rome to receive the pall. But William would not permit this; he had not acknowledged Urban, and he maintained his right to prevent any pope being acknow- ledged by an English subject without his permission. A great council of churchmen and nobles, held to settle the matter, advised Anselm to submit to the king, but failed to overcome his mild and patient firmness. The matter was postponed, and William meanwhile privately sent messengers to Rome, who acknowledged Urban and prevailed on him to send a legate to the king bearing the archiepiscopal pall. ' A partial recon- ciliation was then effected, and the matter of the pall was com- promised. It was not given by the king, but was laid on the •altar at Canterbury, whence Anselm took it. Little more than a year after, fresh trouble arose with the king, and Anselm resolved to proceed to Rome and seek the counsel of his spiritual father. With great difficulty he obtained a reluctant permission to leave, and in October 1097 he set out for Rome. William immediately seized on the revenues of the see, and retained them to his death. Anselm was received with high honour by Urban, and at a great council held at Ban, he was put forward to defend the doctrine of the procession of the Holy Ghost against the representatives of the Greek Church. But Urban was too politic to embroil himself with the king of England, and Anselm found that he could obtain no substantial result. He withdrew from Rome, and spent some time at the little village of Schiavi, where he finished his treatise on the atonement, Cur Deus homo, and then retired to Lyons. In noo William was killed, and Henry, his successor, at once recalled Anselm. But Henry demanded that he should again receive from him in person investiture in his office of archbishop, thus making the dignity entirely dependent on the royal authority. Now, the papal rule in the matter was plain; all homage and lay investiture were strictly prohibited. Anselm represented this to the king; but Henry would not relinquish a privilege possessed by his predecessors, and proposed that the matter should be laid before the Holy See. The answer of the pope reaffirmed the law as to investiture. A second embassy was sent, with a similar result. Henry, however, remained firm, and at last, in 1103, Anselm and an envoy from the king set out for Rome. The pope, Paschal, reaffirmed strongly the rule of investiture, and passed sentence of excommunication against all who had infringed the law, except Henry. Practically this left matters as they were, and Anselm, who had received a message forbidding him to return to England unless on the king's terms, withdrew to Lyons, where he waited to see if Paschal would not take stronger measures. At last, in 1105, he resolved himself to excommunicate Henry. His intention was made known to the king tfirough his sister, and it seriously alarmed him, for it was a critical period in his affairs. A meeting was arranged, and a reconciliation between them effected. In 1106 Anselm crossed to England, with power from the pope to remove the sentence of excommunication from the illegally invested churchmen. In 1 107 the long dispute as to investiture was finally ended by the king resigning his formal rights. The remaining two years of Anselm's life were spent in the duties of his archbishopric. He died on the 2ist of April 1109. He was canonized in 1494 by Alexander VI. Anselm may, with some justice, be considered the first scho- lastic philosopher and theologian. His only great predecessor, Scotus Erigena, had more of the speculative and mystical element than is consistent with a schoolman; but in Anselm are found that recognition of the relation of reason to revealed truth, and that attempt to elaborate a rational system of faith, which form the special characteristics of scholastic thought. His constant endeavour is to render the contents of the Christian consciousness clear to reason, and to develop the intelligible truths interwoven with the Christian belief. The necessary preliminary for this is the possession of the Christian conscious- ness. " He who does not believe will not experience; and he who has not experienced will not understand." That faith must precede knowledge is reiterated by him. " Neque enim quaero intelligere ut credam, sed credo ut intelligam. Nam et hoc credo, quia, nisi credidero, non intelligam." (" Nor do I seek to under- stand that I may believe, but I believe that I may understand. For this too I believe, that unless I first believe, I shall not under- stand.") But after the faith is held fast, the attempt must be made to demonstrate by reabon the truth of what we believe. It is wrong not to do so. "Negligentiae mihi esse videlur, si, postquam confirmati sumus in fide, non studemus quod credimus, intelligere." ("I hold it to be a failure in duty if after we have become steadfast in the faith we do not strive to understand what we believe.") To such an extent does he carry this demand for rational explanation that, at times, it seems as if he claimed for unassisted intelligence the power of penetrating even to the mysteries of the Christian faith. On the whole, however, the qualified statement is his real view; merely rational proofs are always, he affirms, to be tested by Scripture. (Cur Deus homo, i. 2 and 38; De Fide Trin. 2.) The groundwork of his theory of knowledge is contained in the tract De Veritale, in which, from the consideration of truth as in knowledge, in willing, and in things, he rises to the affirma- tion of an absolute truth, in which all other truth participates. This absolute truth is God himself, who is therefore the ultimate ground or principle both of things and of thought. The notion of God comes thus into the foreground of the system; before all things it is necessary that it should be made clear to reason, that it should be demonstrated to have real existence. This demonstration is the substance of the Monologion and Proslogion. In the first of these the proof rests on the ordinary grounds of realism, and coincides to some extent with the earlier theory of Augustine, though it is carried out with singular boldness and fulness. Things, he says, are called good in a variety of ways and degrees; this would be impossible if there were not some absolute standard, some good in itself, in which all relative goods participate. Similarly with such predicates as great, just; they involve a certain greatness and justice. The very existence of things is impossible without some one Being, by whom they are. This absolute Being, this goodness, justice, greatness, is God. Anselm was not thoroughly satisfied with this reasoning; it started from a posteriori grounds, and con- tained several converging lines of proof. He desired to have some one short demonstration. Such a demonstration he presented in the Proslogion; it is his celebrated ontological proof. God is that being than whom none greater can be conceived. Now, if that than which nothing greater can be conceived existed only in the intellect, it would not be the absolutely greatest, for we could add to it existence in reality. It follows, then, that the being than whom nothing greater can be conceived, i.e. God, necessarily has real existence. This reasoning, in which Anselm partially anticipated the Cartesian philosophers, has rarely seemed satisfactory. It was opposed at the time by the monk Gaunilo, in his Liber pro Insipiente, on the ground that we cannot pass from idea to reality. The same criticism is made by several of the later schoolmen, among others by Aquinas, and is in substance what Kant advances against all ontological proof. Anselm replied to the objections of Gaunilo in his Liber Apologeticus. The existence of God being thus held proved, he proceeds to state the rational grounds of the Christian doctrines of creation and of the Trinity. With reference to this last, he says we cannot know God from himself, but only after the analogy of his creatures; and the special analogy used is the self-consciousness of man, its peculiar double nature, with the necessary elements, memory and intelligence, representing the relation of the Father to the Son. The mutual love of these two, proceeding from the relation they hold to one another, symbolizes the Holy Spirit. The further theological doctrines of man, original sin, free will, are developed, partly in the Mono- logion, partly in?other mixed treatises. Finally, in his greatest work, Cur Deus homo, he undertakes to make plain, even to infidels, the rational necessity of the Christian mystery of the atonement. The theory rests on three positions: that satisfac- tion is necessary on account of God's honour and justice; that such satisfaction can be given only by the peculiar personality ANSELM— ANSON of the God-man; that such satisfaction is really given by the voluntary cirath of this infinitely valuable person. The demon- stration is, in brief, this. All the actions of men arc due to the furtherance of God's glory; if, then, there be sin, i.e. if God's honour be wounded, man of himself can give no satisfaction. But the justice of God demands satisfaction; and as an insult to infinite honour is in itself infinite, the satisfaction must be infinite, if it must outweigh all that is not God. Such a penalty can only be paid by God himself, and, as a penalty for man, must be paid under the form of man. Satisfaction is only possible through the God-man. Now this God-man, as sinless, is exempt from the punishment of sin; His passion is therefore voluntary, not given as due. The merit of it is therefore infinite; God's justice is thus appeased, and His mercy may extend to man. This theory has exercised immense influence on the form of church doctrine. It is certainly an advance on the older patristic theory, in so far as it substitutes for a contest between God and Satan, a contest between the goodness and justice of God; but it puts the whole relation on a merely legal footing, gives it no ethical bearing, and neglects altogether the consciousness of the individual to be redeemed. In this respect it contrasts un- favourably with the later theory of Abelard. Anselm's speculations did not receive, in the middle ages, the respect and attention justly their due. This was probably due to their unsystematic character, for they are generally tracts or dialogues on detached questions, not elaborate treatises like the great works of Albert, Aquinas, and Erigena. They have, however, a freshness and philosophical vigour, which more than makes up for their want of system, and which raises them far above the level of most scholastic writings. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The main sources for the history of St Anselm and his times are Eadmer's Vita Anselmi and his Historia Novorum, edited bv M. Rule in Rolls Strut (London, 1884); the best modern work is by Pere Ragey, Histoire de Saint Anselme (Paris, 1890), and Saint Anselme professeur (Paris, 1890). Other appreciations are by A. M6hler, Anselm Enbischofvon Canterbury (Regensburg, 1839; Eng. trans, by H. Rymer, London, 1843); F. R. Hasse, Anselm von Canterbury (3 vols., Leipzig, 1842-1853); C. de Rcmusat, 5. Anselme de Cantorbfry (Paris, 1853, new ed. 1868) ; R. W. Church, St Anselm, first published in Sunday Library (London, 1870; often reprinted); Martin Rule, Life and Times of St Anselm (London, 1883). Works: The best edition of St Anselm's complete works is that of Dom Gerberon (Paris, 1675); reprinted with many notes in 1712; incorporated by I. Migne in his Palrotogia Latino, tomi clviii.-clix. (Paris, 1853-1854). Migne's reprint contains many errors. The Cur Deus homo may be best studied in the editions published by D. Nut t (London, 1885) and bv Griffith (1898). The Mariale, or poems in honour of the Blessed Virgin, has been carefully edited by P. Ragey (Tournai, 1885); the Atonologion and Proslogion, by C. E. Ubaghs (Louyain, 1854; Eng. trans, by S. N. Deane, Chicago, 1903); the tfeditationes. many of which are wrongly attributed to Anselm, have been frequently reprinted, and were included in Methuen's Library 0} Devotion (London, 1903). The best criticism of Anselm's philosophical works is by J. M. Rigg (London, 1896), and Domet de Vorges (Grands Philosopher •enes, Paris, 1901). For a complete bibliography, see A. Vacant 's Dictionnaire de tkrologie. ANSELM, of Laon (d. 1117), French theologian, was born of very humble parents at Laon before the middle of the nth century. He is said to have studied under St Anselm at Bee. About 1076 he taught with great success at Paris, where, as the associate of William of Champeaux, he upheld the realistic side of the scholastic controversy. Later he removed to his native place, where his school for theology and exegetics rapidly became the most famous in Europe. He died in 1117. His greatest work, an interlinear gloss on the Scriptures, was one of the great authorities of the middle ages. It has been frequently reprinted. Other commentaries apparently by him have been ascribed to various writers, principally to the great Anselm. A list of them, with notice of Anselm's life, is contained in the Histoire litttraire de la France, x. 170-180. The works are collected in Migne's Palrolotia Latino, tome 162; some unpublished Sfnirntiae were edited by G. Leftvre (Milan, 1894), on which see Haurcau in the Journal des savants for 1895. ANSELME (Father Anselme of the Virgin Mary) (1625-1694), French genealogist, was born in Paris in 1625. As a layman his name was Pierre Guibours. He entered the order of the bare- footed Augustinians on the jist of March 1644, and it was in their monastery (called the Couvent do Petiti Peres, church of Notre- Dame des Y'ictoire*) that he died, on the 1 7th of January 1604. He devoted his entire life to fenemJocicml studies. In 1663 he published Le Palaii de ikonneur, which besides giving the genealogy of the houses of Lorraine and Savoy, is a complete treatise on heraldry, and in 1664 Le Palais de la gloire, dealing with the genealogy of various illustrious French and European families. These books made friends for him, the most intimate among whom, Honor* Caille, seigneur du Fourny (1630-1713), persuaded him to publish his Histoire geneaiogiyuf de la maison royale de France, et del grand* ofuitri de la couronne (1674, 2 vols. 4); after Father Anselme's death, Honorl Caille collected his papcrs.and brought out a new edition of this highly important work in 1712. The task was taken up and continued by two other friars of the Couvent des Petits I't-n-s, Father Ange de Sainte- Rosalie (Francois Raffard, 1655- 1726), and Father Simplicien (Paul Lucas, 1683-1759), who published the first and second volumes of the third edition in 1726. This edition consists of nine volumes folio; it is a genea- logical and chronological history of the royal house of France, of the peers, of the great officers of the crown and of the king's household, and of the ancient barons of the kingdom. The notes were generally compiled from original documents, references to which are usually given, so that they remain useful to the present day. The work of Father Anselme, his collaborators and successors, is even more important for the history of France than is Dugdale's Baronage of England for the history* of England. (C. B.») ANSON, GEORGE ANSON, BARON (1697-1 762), British admiral, was born on the 23rd of April 1697. He was the son of William Anson of Shugborough in Staffordshire, and his wife Isabella Carrier, who was the sister-in-law of Lord Chancellor Macclesfield, a relationship which proved very useful to the future admiral. George Anson entered the navy in February 1712, and by rapid steps became lieutenant in 1716, commander in 1722, and post-captain in 1724. In this rank he served twice on the North American station as captain of the " Scarborough " and the " Squirrel " from 1724 to 1730 and from 1733 to 1735. In 1737 he was appointed to the " Centurion," 60, on the eve of war with Spain, and when hostilities had begun he was chosen to command as commodore the squadron which was sent to attack her possessions in South America in 1 740. The original scheme was ambitious, and was not carried out. Anson's squadron, which sailed later than had been intended, and was very ill-fitted, consisted of six ships, which were reduced by successive disasters to his flagship the " Centurion." The lateness of the season forced him to round Cape Horn in very stormy weather, and the navigating instruments of the time did not allow of exact observa- tion. Two of his vessels failed to round the Horn, another, the " Wager," was wrecked in the Golfo de PaAas on the coast of Chile. By the time Anson reached the island of Juan Fernandez in June 1741, his six ships had been reduced to three, while the strength of his crews had fallen from 961 to 335. In the absence of any effective Spanish force on the coast he was able to harass the enemy, and to capture the town of Paita on the I3th-isth of November 1741. The steady diminution of his crew by sick- ness, and the worn-out state of his remaining consorts, compelled him at last to collect all the survivors in the " Centurion." He rested at the island of Tinian, and then made his way to Macao in November 1742. After considerable difficulties with the Chinese, he sailed again with his one remaining vessel to cruise for one of the richly laden galleons which conducted the trade between Mexico and the Philippines. The indomitable per- severance he had shown during one of the most arduous voyages in the history of sea adventure was rewarded by the capture of an immensely rich prize, the " Nuestra Sefiora de Covadonga," which was met off Cape Espiritu Santo on the 2oth of June 1743. Anson took his prize back to Macao, sold her cargo to the Chinese, keeping the specie, and sailed for England, which he reached by the Cape of Good Hope on the isth of June 1744. The prize- money earned by the capture of the galleon had made him a rich man for life, and under the influence of irritation caused by the 84 ANSON— ANSTEY refusal of the admiralty to confirm a captain's commission he had given to one of his officers, Anson refused the rank of rear- admiral, and was prepared to leave the service. His fame would stand nearly as high as it does if he had done so, but he would be a far less important figure in the history of the navy. By the world at large he is known as the commander of the voyage of circumnavigation, in which success was won by indomitable perseverance, unshaken firmness, and infinite resource. But he was also the severe and capable administrator who during years of hard work at the admiralty did more than any other to raise the navy from the state of corruption and indiscipline into which it had fallen during the first half of the eighteenth century. Great anger had been caused in the country by the condition of the fleet as revealed in the first part of the war with France and Spain, between 1 739 and 1 747. The need for reform was strongly felt, and the politicians of the day were conscious that it would not be safe to neglect the popular demand for it. In 1745 the duke of Bedford, the new first lord, invited Anson to join the admiralty with the rank of rear-admiral of the white. As subordinate under the duke, or Lord Sandwich, and as first lord himself, Anson was at the admiralty with one short break from 1745 till his death in 1762. His chiefs in the earlier years left him to take the initiative in all measures of reform, and supported him in their own interest. After 1751 he was himself first lord, except for a short time in 1756 and 1757. At his suggestion, or with his advice, the naval administration was thoroughly over- hauled. The dockyards were brought into far better order, and though corruption was not banished, it was much reduced. The navy board was compelled to render accounts, a duty it had long neglected. A system of regulating promotion to flag rank, which has been in the main followed ever since, was introduced. The Navy Discipline Act was revised in 1749, and remained unaltered till 1865. Courts martial were put on a sound footing. Inspec- tions of the fleet and the dockyards were established, and the corps of Marines was created in 1755. The progressive improve- ment which raised the navy to the high state of efficiency it attained in later years dates from Anson's presence at the admiralty. In 1747 he, without ceasing to be a member of the board, commanded the Channel fleet which on the 3rd of May scattered a large French convoy bound to the East, and West Indies, in an action off Cape Finisterre. Several men-of-war and armed French Indiamen were taken, but the overwhelming superiority of Anson's fleet (fourteen men-of-war, to six men-of- war and four Indiamen) in the number and weight of ships deprives the action of any strong claim to be considered remark- able. In society Anson seems to have been cold and taciturn. The sneers of Horace Walpole, and the savage attack of Smollett in The Adventures of an Atom, are animated by personal or political spite. Yet they would not have accused him of defects from which he was notoriously free. In political life he may sometimes have given too ready assent to the wishes of powerful politicians. He married the daughter of Lord Chancellor Hardwicke on the 27th of April 1 748. There were no children of the marriage. His title of Baron Anson of Soberton was given him in 1747, but became extinct on his death. The title of Viscount Anson was, however, created in 1806 in favour of his great-nephew, the grandson of his sister Janetta and Mr Sam- brook Adams, whose father had assumed the name and arms of Anson. The earldom of Lichfield was conferred on the family in the next generation. A fine portrait of the admiral by Reynolds is in the possession of the earl of Lichfield, and there are copies in the National Portrait Gallery and at Greenwich. Anson's promotions in flag rank were: rear-admiral in 1745, vice-admiral in 1746, and admiral in 1748. In 1749 he became vice-admiral of Great Britain, and in 1761 admiral of the fleet. He died on the 6th of June 1762. A life of Lord Anson, inaccurate in some details but valuable and interesting, was published by Sir John Barrow in 1839. The standard account of his voyage round the world is that by his chaplain Richard Walter, 1748, often reprinted. A share in the work has been claimed on dubious grounds for Benjamin Robins, the mathematician. Another and much inferior account was published in 1745 by Pascoe Thomas, the schoolmaster of the ll Centurion." (D. H.) ANSON, SIR WILLIAM REYNELL, BART. (1843- ), English jurist, was born on the I4th of November 1843, at Walberton, Sussex, son of the second baronet. Educated at Eton and Balliol College, Oxford, he took a first class in the final classical schools in 1866, and was elected to a fellowship of All Souls in the following year. In 1869 he was called to the bar, and went the home circuit until 1873, when he succeeded to the baronetcy. In 1874 he became Vinerian reader in English law at Oxford, a post which he held until he became, in 1881, warden of All Souls College. He identified himself both with local and university interests; he became an alderman of the city of Oxford in 1892, chairman of quarter sessionsfor the county in 1894, was vice-chancellor of the university in 1898-1899, and chancellor of the diocese of Oxford in 1899. In that year he was returned, without opposition, as M.P. for the university in the Liberal Unionist interest, and consequently resigned the vice-chancellorship. In parliament he preserved an active interest in education, being a member of the newly created consultative committee of the Board of Education in 1900, and in 1902 he became parliamentary secretary. He took an active part in the foundation of a school of law at Oxford, and his volumes on The Principles of the English Law of Contract (1884, nth ed. 1906), and on The Law and Custom of the Constitu- tion in two parts, " The Parliament " and " The Crown " (1886- 1892, 3rd ed. 1907, pt. Lvol. ii.), are standard works. ANSONIA, a city of New Haven county, Connecticut, U.S.A., coextensive with the township of the same name, on the Nauga- tuck river, immediately N. of Derby and about 12 m. N.W. of New Haven. It is served by the New York, New Haven & Hartford railway, and by interurban electric lines running N., S. and E. Pop. (1900) 12,681, of whom 4296 were foreign born; (1910 census) 15,152. Land area about 5-4 sq. m. The city has extensive manufactures of heavy machinery, electric supplies, brass and copper products and silk goods. In 1905 the capital invested in manufacturing was $7,625,864, and the value of the products was $19,132,455. Ansonia, Derby and Shelton form one of the most important industrial communities in the state. The city, settled in 1840 and named in honour of the merchant and philanthropist, Anson Green Phelps (1781-1853), was originally a part of the township of Derby; it was chartered as a borough in 1864 and as a city in 1 893, when the township of Ansonia, which had been incorporated in 1889, and the city were consolidated. ANSTED, DAVID THOMAS (1814-1880), English geologist, was born in London on the sth of February 1814. He was educated at Jesus College, Cambridge, and after taking his degree of M.A. in 1839 was elected to a fellowship of the college. In- spired by the teachings of Adam Sedgwick, his attention was given to geology, and in 1840 he was elected professor of geology in King's College, London, a post which he held until 1853. Meanwhile he became a fellow of the Royal Society in 1844, and from that date until 1847 he was vice-secretary of the Geological Society and edited its Quarterly Journal. The practical side of geology now came to occupy his chief attention, and he visited various parts of Europe and the British Islands as a consulting geologist and mining engineer. He was also in 1868 and for many years examiner in physical geography to the science and art department. He died at Melton near Woodbridge, on the I3th of May 1880. PUBLICATIONS. — Geology, Introductory, Descriptive and Practical (2 vols., 1844); The Ionian Islands (1863); The Applications of Geology to the Arts and Manufactures (1865); Physical Geography (1867); Water and Water Supply (Surface Water) (1878); and The Channel Islands (with R. G. Latham) (1862). ANSTEY, CHRISTOPHER (1724-1805), English poet, was the son of the rector of Brinkley, Cambridgeshire, where he was born on the 3ist of October 1724. He was educated at Eton and King's College, Cambridge, where he distinguished himself for his Latin verses. He became a fellow of his college (1745). but the degree of M.A. was withheld from him, owing to the offence caused by a speech made by him beginning: " Doctores sine doctrina, magistri artium sine artibus, et baccalaurei baculo potius quam lauro digni." In 1754 he succeeded to the family ANSTRUTHER— ANT «5 estate* and left Cambridge; and two yean later he married the daughter of Felix Calvert of Albury Hall, Herts. For tome time Anstcy published nothing of any note, though he cultivated letters as well as his estates. Some visits to Bath, however, where later, in 1770, he made his permanent home, resulted in 1766 in his famous rhymed letters, Tke New Batk Guide or Memoirs of Ike B . . . r . . . d [Blunderhead] Family . . ., which had immediate success, and was enthusiastically praised for its original kind of humour by Walpole and Gray. The Klrdum Ball, in Poetical Letters from Mr Inkle at Batk to his Wife at Gloucester (1776) sustained the reputation won by the Guide. Anstey's other productions in verse and prose are now forgotten. He died on the 3rd of August 1805. His Poetical Works were collected in 1808 (2 vols.) by the author's son John (d. 1810), himself author of The Pleader's Guide (1706), in the same vein with the Sew Bath Guide. ANSTRUTHER (locally pronounced Anster), a seaport of Fife- shire, Scotland. It comprises the royal and police burghs of Anstruther Easter (pop. noo), Anstruther Wester (501) and Kilrcnny (2542). and lies g m. S.S.E. of St Andrews, having a station on the North British railway company's branch line from Thornton Junction to St Andrews. The chief industries include coast and deep-sea fisheries, shipbuilding, tanning, the making of cod-liver oil and fish-curing. The harbour was completed in 1877 at a cost of £80,000. The two Anstruthers are divided only by a small stream called Dreel Burn. James Melville (1556-1614), nephew of the more celebrated reformer, Andrew Melville, who was minister of Kilrcnny, has given in his Diary a graphic account of the arrival at Anstruther of a weather- bound ship of the Armada, and the tradition of the intermixture of Spanish and Fifeshire blood still prevails in the district. Anstruther fair supplied William Tennant (1784-1848), who was born and buried in the town, with the subject of his poem of " Anster Fair." Sir James Lumsden, a soldier of fortune under Gustavus Adolphus, who distinguished himself in the Thirty Years' War, was born in the parish of Kilrcnny about 1508. David Martin (1737-1798), the painter and engraver; Thomas Chalmers (1780-1847), the great divine; and John Goodsir (1814-1867), the anatomist, were natives of Anstruther. Little more than a mile to the west lies the royal and police burgh of Pittenweem (Gaelic, " the hollow of the cave "), a quaint old fishing town (pop. 1863), with the remains of a priory. About 2 m. still farther westwards is the fishing town of St Monans or Abercromby (pop. 1808), with a fine old Gothic church, picturesquely perched on the rocky shore. These fisher towns on the eastern and south-eastern coasts of Fifeshire furnish artists with endless subjects. Archibald Constable (1774-1827), Sir Walter Scott's publisher, was born in the parish of Carnbee, about 3 m. to the north of Pittenweem. The two Anstruthers, Kilrcnny and Pittenweem unite with St Andrews, Cupar and I 'rail, in sending one member to parliament. ANSWER (derived from and, against, and the same root as swear), originally a solemn assertion in opposition to some one or something, and thus generally any counter-statement or defence, a reply to a question or objection, or a correct solution of a problem. In English law, the " answer " in pleadings was, previous to the Judicature Acts 1873-1875, the statement of defence, especially as regards the facts and not the law. Its place is now taken by a " statement of defence." " Answer " is the term still applied in divorce proceedings to the reply of the respondent (see PLEADING). The famous Latin Rcsponsa Prudent urn (" answers of the learned") were the accumulated views of many successive generations of Roman lawyers, a body of legal opinion which gradually became authoritative. In music an " answer " is the technical name in counterpoint for the repetition by one part or instrument of a theme proposed by another. ANT (O. Eng. atmete, from Teutonic a, privative, and ma i fan. cut or bite off, i.e. " the biter off "; of mete in Middle English became differentiated in dialect use to amele. then amte. and so ant. and also to emete, whence the synonym " emmet," now only used provincial!)-. " ant " being the general literary form). The fact that the name of the ant has come down in English from a thousand years ago shows that this das* of insect* inprcMed the old inhabitants of England as they impressed the Hebrews and Greeks. The social instincts and industrious habits of ants have always made them favourite objects of study, and a vast amount of literature has accumulated on the subject of their structure and their modes of life. Characters. — An ant is easily recognized both by the casual observer and by the student of insects. Ants form a distinct and natural family (Formicidae) of the great order Hymenoptera, to which bees, wasps and sawflies also belong. The insects of this order have mandibles adapted for biting, and two pairs of mem- branous wings are usually present; the first abdominal segment (propodeum) becomes closely associated with the fore-body (thorax) , of which it appears to form a part. In all ants the second (apparently the first) abdominal segment is very markedly constricted at its front and hind edges, so that it forms a " node " at the base of the hind-body (fig. i), and in many ants the third abdominal segment is similarly " nodular " in form (fig. 3, b,c,). It is this peculiar " waist " that catches the eye of the observer, and makes the insects so easy of recognition. Another con- spicuous and well-known feature of ants is the wingless condition of the " workers," as the specialized females, with undeveloped ovaries, which form the largest proportion of the population of ant-communities, are called. Such " workers " are essential to the formation of a social community of Hymenoptera, and their wingless condition among the ants shows that their specialization has been carried further in this family than among the wasps and bees. Further, while among wasps and bees we find some solhary and some social genera, the ants as a family are social, though some FIG. i. — Wood Ant (Formica rufa). I, Queen; 2, mate; 3, aberrant species are dependent on the workers of other ants. It is interesting and suggestive that in a few families of digging Hymenoptera (such as the MutUlidae), allied to the ants, the females are wingless. The perfect female or " queen " ants (figs, i, /, 3, a) often cast their wings (fig. 3,6) after the nuptial flight; in a few species the females, and in still fewer the males, never develop wings. (For the so-called " white ants, "which belong to an order far removed from the Hymenoptera, see TERMITE.) Structure. — The head of an ant carries a pair of elbowed feelers, each consisting of a minute basal and an elongate second segment, forming the stalk or " scape," while from eight to eleven short segments make up the terminal " flagcllum." These segments are abundantly supplied with elongate tooth-like projections connected with nerve-endings probably olfactory in function. The brain is well developed and its " mushroom-bodies " are exceptionally large. The mandibles, which are frequently used for carrying various objects, are situated well to the outside of the maxillae, so that they can be opened and shut without interfering with the latter. The peculiar form and arrangement of the anterior abdominal segments have already been described. The fourth abdominal segment is often very large, •\nd forms the greater part of the hind-body; this segment is markedly constricted at its basal (forward) end, where it is embraced by the small third segment. In many of those ants whose third abdom- inal segment forms a second " node," the basal dorsal region of the fourth segment is traversed by a large number of very fine transverse st nations; over these the sharp hinder edge of the third segment can be scraped to and fro, and the result is a stridulating organ which gives rise to a note of very high pitch. For the appreciation of the sounds made by these stridulators, the ants are furnished with delicate organs of hearing (chordotonal organs) in the head, in the three thoracic and two of the abdominal segments and in the shins of the legs. 86 ANT The hinder abdominal segments and the stings of the queens and workers resembls those of other stinging Hymenoptera. But there are several subfamilies of ants whose females have the lancets of the sting useless for piercing, although the poison-glands are functional, their secretion being ejected by the insect, when occasion may arise, from the greatly enlarged reservoir, the reduced sting acting as a squirt. Nests . — The nests of different kinds of ants are constructed in very different situations; many species (Lasius, for example) make underground nests; galleries and chambers being hollowed out in the soil, and opening by small holes on the surface, or protected above by a large stone. The wood ant (Formica rufa, fig. i) piles up a heap of leaves, twigs and other vegetable refuse, so arranged as to form an orderly series of galleries, though the structure appears at first sight a chaotic heap. Species of Camponotus and many other ants tunnel in wood. In tropical countries ants sometimes make their nests in the hollow thorns of trees or on leaves; species with this habit are believed to make a return to the tree for the shelter that it affords by protecting it from the ravages of other insects, including their own leaf -cutting relations. Early Stages. — The larvae of ants (fig. 3, e) are legless and helpless maggots with very small heads (fig. 3, /), into whose mouths the requisite food has to be forced by the assiduous "nurse" workers. The maggots are tended by these nurses with the greatest care, and carried to those parts of the nest most favour- able for their health and growth. When fully grown, the maggot spins an oval silken cocoon within which it pupates (fig. 3, g). These cocoons, which may often be seen carried between the mandibles of the workers, are the "ants' eggs" prized as food for fish and pheasants. The workers of a Ceylonese ant (Oecophylla smaragdina) are stated by D. Sharp to hold the maggots between their mandibles and induce them to spin together the leaves of trees from which they form their shelters, as the adult ants have no silk-producing organs. Origin of Societies. — Ant-colonies are founded either by a single female or by several in association. The foundress of the nest lays eggs and at first feeds and rears the larvae, the earliest of which develop into workers. C. Janet observed that in a nest of Lasius alienus, established by a single female, the first workers emerged from their cocoons on the loznd day. These workers then 'take on themselves the labour of the colony, some collecting food, which they transfer to their comrades within the nest whose duty is to tend and feed the larvae. The foundress-queen is now waited on by the workers, who supply her with food and spare her all cares of work, so that henceforth she may devote her whole energies to egg-laying. The population of the colony increases fast, and a well-grown nest contains several " queens " and males, besides a large number of workers. One of the most interesting features of ant-societies is the dimorphism or polymorphism that may often be seen among the workers, the same species being represented by two or more forms. Thus the British " wood ant " (Formica rufa) has a smaller and a larger race of workers (" minor " and " major " forms), while in Ponera we find a blind race of workers and another race provided with eyes, and in Atla, Eciion and other genera, four or five forms of workers are produced, the largest of which, with huge heads and elongate trenchant mandibles, are known as the " soldier " caste. The development of such diversely-formed insects as the offspring of the unmodified females which show none of their peculiarities raises many points of difficulty for students in heredity. It is thought that the differences are, in part at least, due to differences in the nature of the food supplied to larvae, which are apparently all alike. But the ovaries of worker ants are in some cases sufficiently developed for the production of eggs, which may give rise parthenogenetic- ally to male, queen or worker offspring. Food. — Different kinds of ants vary greatly in the substances which they use for food. Honey forms the staple nourishment of many ants, some of the workers seeking nectar from flowers, working it up into honey within their stomachs and regurgitating it so as to feed their comrades within the nest, who, in their turn, pass it on to the grubs. A curious specialization of certain workers in connexion with the transference of honey has been demonstrated by H. C. McCook in the American genus Myrme- cocystus, and by later observers in Australian and African species of Plagiolepis and allied genera. The workers in question remain within the nest, suspended by their feet, and serve as living honey-pots for the colony, becoming so distended by the supplies of honey poured into their mouths by their foraging comrades that their abdomens become sub-globular, the pale intersegmental membrane being tightly stretched between the widely-separated dark sclerites. The " nurse " workers in the nest can then draw their supplies from these " honey-pots." Very many ants live by preying upon various insects, such as the British " red ants " with well-developed stings (Myrmica rubra), and the notorious " driver ants " of Africa and America, the old-world species of which belong to Dorylus and allied genera, and the new-world species to Eciton (fig. 2, 2, 3). In these ants the difference between the large, heavy, winged males and females, and the small, long-legged, active workers, is so great, that various forms of the same species have been often referred to distinct genera; in Eciton, for example, the female has a single petiolate abdominal segment, the worker two. The workers of these ants range over the country in large armies, killing and carrying off all the insects and spiders that they find and sometimes attacking vertebrates. They have been known to enter human dwellings, removing all the>verminous insects contained therein. These driver ants shelter in temporary nests made in FIG. 2. — Leaf-cutting and Foraging Ants, i, Atla cephalus; 2, Eciton drepanophora; 3, Eciton erratica. hollow trees or similar situations, where the insects may be seen, according to T. Belt, " clustered together in a dense mass like a great swarm of bees hanging from the roof." The harvesting habits of certain ants have long been known, the subterranean store-houses of Mediterranean species of Aphaeno- gasler having been described by J. T. Moggridge and A. Forel, and the complex industries of the Texan Pogonomyrmex barbatus by H. C. McCook and W. M. Wheeler. The colonies of Aphaeno- gaster occupy nests extending over an area of fifty to a hundred square yards several feet below the surface of the ground. Into these underground chambers the ants carry seeds of grasses and other plants of which they accumulate large stores. The species of Pogonomyrmex strip the husks from the seeds and carry them out of the nest, making a refuse heap near the entrance. The seeds are harvested from various grasses, especially from Aristida oligantha, a species known as " ant rice," which often grows in quantity close to the site selected for the nest, but the statement that the ants deliberately sow this grass is an error, due, according to Wheeler, to the sprouting of germinating seeds which the ants have turned out of their store-chambers. v Perhaps no ants have such remarkable habits as those of the genus Atta, — the leaf-cutting ants of tropical America (fig. 2, 1). There are several forms of worker in these species, some with enormous heads, which remain in the underground nests, while their smaller comrades scour the country in search of suitable trees, which they ascend, biting off small circular pieces from the leaves, and carrying them off to the nests. Their labour often results in the complete defoliation of the tree. The tracks along which the ants carry the leaves to their nests are often in part subterranean. H. C. McCook describes an almost straight tunnel, nearly 450 ft. long, made by Altafervens. Within the nest, the leaves are cut into very minute fragments and gathered into small spherical heaps forming a spongy mass, which — according to the researches of A. Moller — serves as the substratum for a special fungus (Rozites gongylophora) , the staple food of the ants. The insects cultivate their fungus, weeding out ANT mould and bacterial growths, and causing the appearance, on the surface of their " mushroom garden," of numerous small white bodies formed by swollen ends of the fungus hyphae. When the fungus is grown elsewhere than in the ants' nest it produces gonidia instead of the white masses on which the ants feed, hence it seems that these msuri are indeed produced as the result of some unknown cultural process. Other genera of South American ants — Apterosligma and Cypkomyrmex — make similar fungal cultivations, but they use wood, grain or dung as the substratum instead of leaf fragments. Each kind of ant is so addicted to its own particular fungal food that it refuses disdainfully, even when hungry, the produce of an alien nest. Guests of Ants. — Many ants feed largely and some almost entirely on ihe saccharine secretions of other insects, the best known of which are the Aphides (plant-lice or " green-fly "). This consideration leads us to one of the most remarkable and fascinating features of ant-communities — the presence in the nests of insects and other small arthropods, which are tended and cared for by the ants as their " guests," rendering to the ants in return the sweet food which they desire. The relation between ants and aphids has often been compared to that between men and milch cattle. Sir J. Lubbock (Lord Avebury) states that the common British yellow ants (Lasius flavus) collect flocks of root-feeding aphids in their underground nests, protect them, build earthen shelters over them, and take the greatest care of their eggs. Other ants, such as the British black garden species (L. niger), go after the aphids that frequent the shoots of plants. Many species of aphid migrate from one plant to another at certain stages in their life-cycle when their numbers have very largely increased, and F. M. Webster has observed ants, foreseeing this emigration, to carry aphids from apple trees to grasses. It has been shown by M. Busgen that the sweet secretion (honey-dew) of the aphids is not derived, as generally believed, from the paired cornicles on the fifth abdominal segment, but from the intestine, whence it exudes in drops and is swallowed by the ants. Besides the aphids, other insects, such as scale insects (Coccidae) , caterpillars of blue butterflies (Lycaenidae) , and numerous beetles, furnish the ants with nutrient secretions. The number of species of beetles that inhabit ants' nests is almost incredibly large, and most of these are never found elsewhere, being blind, helpless and dependent on the ants' care for protection and food; these beetles belong for the most part to the families Pselaphidae, Paussidae and Slaphylinidat. Spring-tails and bristle-tails (order Aptera) of several species also frequent ants' nests. While some of these " guest " insects produce secretions that furnish the ants with food, some seem to be useless inmates of the nest, obtaining food from the ants and giving nothing in return. Others again play the part of thieves in the ant society; C. Janet observed a small bristle-tail (Lepismima) to lurk beneath the heads of two Lasius workers, while one passed food to the other, in order to steal the drop of nourishment and to make off with it. The same naturalist describes the associa- tion with Lasius of small mites (Antcnnophorus) which are carried about by the worker ants, one of which may have a mite beneath her mouth, and another on either side of her abdomen. On patting their carrier or some passing ant, the mites arc supplied with food, no service being rendered by them in return for the ants' care. Perhaps the ants derive from these seemingly useless guests the same satisfaction as we obtain by keeping pet animals. Recent advance in our knowledge of the guests and associates of ants is due principally to E. Wasmann, who has compiled a list of nearly 1500 species of insects, arachnids and crustaceans, inhabiting ants' nests. The warmth, shelter and abundant food in the nests, due both to the fresh supplies brought in by the ants and to the large amount of waste matter that accumulates, must prove strongly attractive to the various " guests." Some of the inmates of ants' nests are here for the purpose of preying upon the ants or their larvae, so that we find all kinds of relations between the owners of the nests and their companions, from mutual benefit to active hostility. Among these associations or guests other species of ants are not wanting. For example, a minute specie* (Selenopri* /*««) lives in a compound nest with various specie* of Formica, forming narrow galleries which open into the larger galleries of its host. The Soltnoptit can make it* way into the territory of the FormUa to steal the larvae which serve it a* food, but the Formica is too large to pursue the thief when it returns to Its own galleries. Slaves. — Several species of ants are found in association with another species which stands to them in the relation of slave to master. Formica sanguinea is a well-known European slave- making ant that inhabits England; its workers raid the nests of F. fusca and other species, and carry off to their own nests pupae from which workers are developed that live contentedly as slaves of their captors. P. tanguinea can live either with or without slaves, but another European ant (Polyergus rufeueru) is so dependent on its slaves— various species of Formica— that its workers are themselves unable to feed the larvae. The remarkable genus Antr gates has no workers, and its wingless males and females are served by communities of Tetramorium cespitum (fig. 3). FIG. 3. — Ant, Tetramorium cespitum (Linn.), a. Female; b, female after loss of wings; c, male; d, worker; e, larva; g, pupa (magnified four times); /, head of larva more highly magnified. After Marlatt, Bull. 4 (n.*.) Da. Ent. U. S. Dept. Agri- culture. Senses and Intelligence of Ants. — That ants possess highly developed senses and the power of communicating with one another has long been known to students of their habits; the researches of P. Huber and Sir J. Lubbock (Lord Avebury) on these subjects are familiar to all naturalists. The insects are guided by light, being very sensitive to ultra-violet rays, and also by scent and hearing. Recent experiments by A. M. Ficlde show that an ant follows her own old track by a scent exercised by the tenth segment of the feeler, recognizes other inmates of her nest by a sense of smell resident in the eleventh segment, is guided to the eggs, maggots and pupae, which she has to tend, by sensation through the eighth and ninth segments, and appreciates the general smell of the nest itself by means of organs in the twelfth segment. Lubbock's experiments of inducing ants to seek objects that had been removed show that they are guided by scent rather than by sight, and that any disturbance of their surroundings often causes great uncertainty in their actions. Ants invite one another to work, or ask for food from ANTAE— oi (Scriptora rerum mirabilium Graecf), 1839. In the course of constructions for surfaces to 'reflect to one and the same point (i) all rays in whatever direction passing through another point, (2) a set of parallel rays, Anthemius assumes a property of an ellipse not found in Apollonius (the equality of the angles subtended at a focus by two tangents drawn from a point), and (having given the focus and a double ordinate) he uses the focus and directrix to obtain any number of points on a parabola — the first instance on record of the practical use of the directrix. On Anthemius generally, see Procopius, De Aedifit. i. i ; Agathias. Hist. v. 6-9; Gibbon's Decline and Fall, cap. xl. (T. L. H.) ANTHESTERIA, one of the four Athenian festivals in honour of Dionysus, held annually for three days ( 1 1 th-i 3th) in the month of Anthesterion (February-March). The object of the festival was to celebrate the maturing of the wine stored at the previous vintage, and the beginning of spring. On the first day, called Pithoigia (opening of the casks), libations were offered from the newly opened casks to the god of wine, all the household, includ- ing servants and slaves, joining in the festivities. The rooms and the drinking vessels in them were adorned with spring flowers, as were also the children over three years of age. The second day, named Choes (feast of beakers), was a time of merrymaking. The people dressed themselves gaily, some in the disguise of t hr mythical personages in the suite of Dionysus, and paid a round of visits to their acquaintances. Drinking clubs met to drink off matches, the winner being he who drained his cup most rapidly. Others poured libations on the tombs of deceased relatives. On the part of the state this day was the occasion of a peculiarly solemn and secret ceremony in one of the sanctuaries of Dionysus in the Lenaeum, which for the rest of the year was closed. The basilissa (or basilinna), wife of the archon basileus for the time, went through a ceremony of marriage to the wine god, in which she was assisted by fourteen Athenian matrons, called geraerae, chosen by the basileus and sworn to secrecy. The days on which the Pithoigia and Choes were celebrated were both regarded as 6.iro4>pa.&tt (nefastt) and /uo/xu (" defiled "), necessitating ex- piatory libations; on them the souls of the dead came up from the underworld and walked abroad; people chewed leaves of whitethorn and besmeared their doors with tar to protect them- selves from evil. But at least in private circles the festive character of the ceremonies predominated. The third day was named Chylri (feast of pots, from xvrpa!, a pot), a festival of the dead. Cooked pulse was offered to Hermes, in his capacity of a 94 ANTRIM— ANTHOLOGY god of the lower world, and to the souls of the dead. Although no performances were allowed at the theatre, a sort of rehearsal took place, at which the players for the ensuing dramatic festival were selected. The name Anthesteria, according to the account of it given above, is usually connected with av6os (" flower," or the " bloom " of the grape), but A. W. Verrall (Journal of Hellenic Studies, xx., 1900, p. 115) explains it as a feast of " revocation" (from avaSfaaaaBai, to " pray back " or " up "), at which the ghosts of the dead were recalled to the land of the living (cp. the Roman mundus patet). J. E. Harrison (ibid. 100,109, anai>os) ; and in an introductory poem each poet is compared to some flower, fancifully deemed appropriate to his genius. The arrangement of his collection was alphabetical, according to the initial letter of each epigram. In the age of the emperor Tiberius (or Trajan, according to others) the work of Meleager was continued by another epigram- matist, Philippus of Thessalonica, who first employed the term anthology. His collection, which included the compositions of thirteen writers subsequent to Meleager, was also arranged alphabetically, and contained an introductory poem. It was of inferior quality to Meleager's. Somewhat later, under Hadrian, another supplement was formed by the sophist Diogenianus of Heracleia (znd century A.D.), and Strato of Sardis compiled his elegant but tainted MoO muscie banners; sc, sulcus; st, parent zooid. The buds d are not direct outgrowths of the body-wall, but are formed on the courses of hollow out- growths of the base or body-wall, called solenia. These form a more or less complicated canal system, lined by endoderm, and communicating with the cavities of the zooids. The most simple form of budding is found in the genus Cornularia, in which the mother zooid gives off from its base one or more simple radiciform outgrowths. Each outgrowth contains a single tube or selenium, and at a longer or shorter distance from the mother zooid a daughter zooid is formed as a bud. This gives off new outgrowths, and these, branching and anastomosing with one another, may form a network, adhering to stones, corals, or other objects, from which ANTHOZOA aooids arise at intervals. In Clatularia and its allie* each outgrowth contains several solenia, and the outgrowth* may take the form of flat expansion*, composed of a number of solcnial tubes felted together to form a lamellar surface of attachment. Sue h outgrowth* are called iloiom, and a *tolon may be cimple, i.e. contain only one *>lonium, as in Cornulana, or may be complex and built up of many solenia, as in Clavularia. Further complication* arise when the lower walls of the mother zooid become thu-krnrd and interpene- trated with solenia, from which buds are developed, so that looose, tufted, or branched colonies are formed. The chief orders of the Synalcyonacea are founded upon the different architectural features of colonies produced by differ- ent mode* of budding. We recognize six orders — the STOLONIFBRA, ALCYON- ACEA, PSEUDAXONIA, AXIF- ERA, STBLBCHOTOKEA, and COBNOTHECALIA. In the order STOLONIFERA the zooids spring at intervals from branching or lamellar stolons, and are usually free from one another, except at their bases, but in some cases horizontal solenia arising at various heights from the body- wall may place the more distal portions of the zooids in commu- nication with one another. In the genus Tubipora these PIG. 5. horizontal solenia unite to B. Diagrammatic longitudinal section of a corallite. showing two platforms. £,nd Simn,e anclcup-fhaped^bulae, ,. (After S. J. H,ckson.) their consists of loose spicules. In the Tubiporidae the spicules of the proximal part of the body-wall are fused together to form a firm tube, the corallite, into which the distal part of the zooid can be retracted. The corallites are connected at intervals by horizontal platforms containing solenia, and at the level of each platform the cavity of the corallite is divided by a transverse calcareous partition, either flat or cup-shaped, called a tabula. Formerly all corals in which tabulae are present were classed together as Tabulata, but Tubipora is an undoubted Alcyonarian with a lamellar stolon, and the structure of the fossil genus Syringopora, which has vertical corallites united by horizontal solenia, clearly shows its affinity to Tubipora. The Favosi- tidae, a fossil, family from the Silurian and Devonian, have a massive corallum composed of numerous polygonal corallites closely packed together. The cavities of adjacent coral- lites communicate by means of numerous per- forations, which appear to represent solenia, and numerous transverse tab- ulae are also present. In Faros it fs hemiiphaerico. a number of radial spines, projecting into the cavity FIG. 6.— Portion of a colony of Coral- of the corallite. give it the Hum rubrum. showing expanded and appearance of a madrepor- contracted zooids. In the lower part of anan coral. the figure the cortex has been cut away In the o™cr ALCYON- to show the axis, ax, and the longi- *CE* tne colony consists tudinal canals, U, surrounding it. of bunches of elongate cylindrical zooids, whose proximal portions are united by solenia and compacted, by fusion of their own walls and those of the solenia. into a fleshy mass called the coenenchyma. Thus the coenenchyma forms a stem, sometimes branched, from the surface of which the free portions of the zooids project. The skeleton of the Alcyonacea consists of separate calcareous spicules, which are often, especially in the Nephthyidae, so abundant and so closely interlocked as to form a tolerably firm and hard armour. The order comprises the families Xeniidae, Alcyonidat and Ncphlhyidae. Alcyonium digitatum, a pink digitate form popularly known as " dead men's fingers," is common in 10-20 fathoms of water off the English coasts. In the order PSEUDAXOMA the colonies arc upright and branched, 99 of a number of short zooid* whose proximal end* are im- bedded in a coenenchyma containing numerou* ramifying tolrnia and iniculex. The coenenchyma i* further HirTrrrntiatra into a medullary ix>rt ion and a cortex. The latter contain* the proximal mi piftiii) of the zooid* and numerous but separate spicules. The meduMary portion is densely crowded with spiculea of different shape from those in the cortex, and in some forms the tpicule* are cemented together to form a hard supporting axis. There are four families of Pseud- axonia — the Briareidae, Sclerogorgidae, Melitodidae, and CoraUidae. In the first-named the medulla is penetrated by solenia and forms an indistinct axis; in the remainder the me- dulla is devoid of solenia, and in the Melitodidae and CoraUidae it forms a dense axis, which in the Melito- didae consists of alternate ca lea reousandhorny joints. The precious red coral of commerce, Corallium rub- rum (fig. 6), a member of the family Corillidae, is found at depths varying FIG. 7.— The sea-fan (Gorgonia from 15 to 1 20 fathoms in cavolinif). the Mediterranean Sea, chiefly on the African coast. It owes its commercial value to the beauty of its hard red calcareous axis which in life is covered by a cortex in which the proximal moieties of the zooids are imbedded. Corallium rubrum has been the subject of a beautifully-illustrated memoir by de Lacaze-Duthiers, which should be consulted for details of anatomy. The AXIFERA comprise those corals that have a horny or calcified axis, which in position corre- sponds to the axis of the Pseudaxonia, but, unlike it, is never formed of fused spicules; the most familiar example is the pink sea-fan, Gorgonia cavolinii, which is found in abundance in 10-25 fathoms of water off the English coasts (fig. 7). In this order the axis is formed as an ingrowth of the ecto- derm of the base of the mother zooid of the colony, the cavity of the ingrowth being filled by a horny sub- stance secreted by the ecto- derm. In Gorgonia the axis remains horny throughout life